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Nepenthes mirabilis Fractionated Pitcher Fluid Use for Mixed Agro-Waste Pretreatment: Advocacy for Non-Chemical Use in Biorefineries. Catalysts 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/catal12070726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
This study determined whether it is feasible to pretreat mixed agro-waste of different particle sizes using the pitcher fluid of Nepenthes mirabilis (N. mirabilis), which is known to digest leaf litter due to the enzyme cocktail contained in the fluid. This is due to the need for the holocellulolysis (a source of fermentable sugars) of mixed agro-waste to produce fermentable hydrolysates. The pitcher fluid was fractionated (<3 kDa, ˃3 kDa, <10 kDa, ˃10 kDa) and slurrified with the mixed agro-waste, i.e., 25% (w/w) for each waste—orange peels, apple peels, maize cobs, grape pomace, and oak plant leaf litter of various particle sizes, i.e., >75 µm x < 106 µm and >106 µm. The process of producing a high concentration of total reducible sugars (TRSs) with the lowest production of total phenolic compounds (TPCs) was determined to be a particle size of >106 µm, pretreatment for 72 h, and an enzyme fraction of <10 kDa, whereby 97 g/L of TRSs were produced with a significantly lower TPCs load (1 g/L). Furthermore, the <10 kDa showed preferable physico-chemical properties, with the highest reduction-oxidation potential including acidity. Several enzymes, i.e., β-1,3-Glucanase, Putative peroxidase 27, Thaumatin-like protein, among others, were identified in the <10 kDa fraction, i.e., enzymes known to perform various functions in plant-based waste. Therefore, there is a need for the renewable energy industry to consider solely using pitcher fluids to pretreat mixed agro-waste for fermentable hydrolysates’ production, which can be used as liquid feedstock for the bioenergy and/or biorefinery industries for environmental pollution reduction.
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Selective Bacterial Community Enrichment between the Pitcher Plants Sarracenia minor and Sarracenia flava. Microbiol Spectr 2021; 9:e0069621. [PMID: 34817222 PMCID: PMC8612160 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00696-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The interconnected and overlapping habitats present in natural ecosystems remain a challenge in determining the forces driving microbial community composition. The cuplike leaf structures of some carnivorous plants, including those of the family Sarraceniaceae, are self-contained ecological habitats that represent systems for exploring such microbial ecology questions. We investigated whether Sarracenia minor and Sarracenia flava cultivate distinct bacterial communities when sampled at the same geographic location and time. This sampling strategy eliminates many abiotic environmental variables present in other studies that compare samples harvested over time, and it could reveal biotic factors driving the selection of microbes. DNA extracted from the decomposing detritus trapped in each Sarracenia leaf pitcher was profiled using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. We identified a surprising amount of bacterial diversity within each pitcher, but we also discovered bacteria whose abundance was specifically enriched in one of the two Sarracenia species. These differences in bacterial community representation suggest some biotic influence of the Sarracenia plant on the bacterial composition of their pitchers. Overall, our results suggest that bacterial selection due to factors other than geographic location, weather, or prey availability is occurring within the pitchers of these two closely related plant species. This indicates that specific characteristics of S. minor and S. flava may play a role in fostering distinct bacterial communities. These confined, naturally occurring microbial ecosystems within Sarracenia pitchers may provide model systems to answer important questions about the drivers of microbial community composition, succession, and response to environmental perturbations. IMPORTANCE This study uses amplicon sequencing to compare the bacterial communities of environmental samples from the detritus of the leaf cavities of Sarracenia minor and Sarracenia flava pitcher plants. We sampled the detritus at the same time and in the same geographic location, eliminating many environmental variables present in other comparative studies. This study revealed that different species of Sarracenia contain distinct bacterial members within their pitchers, suggesting that these communities are not randomly established based on environmental factors and the prey pool but are potentially enriched for by the plants' chemical or physical environment. This study of these naturally occurring, confined microbial ecosystems will help further establish carnivorous pitcher plants as a model system for answering important questions about the development and succession of microbial communities.
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Ravee R, Baharin A, Cho WT, Ting TY, Goh HH. Protease activity is maintained in Nepenthes ampullaria digestive fluids depleted of endogenous proteins with compositional changes. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2021; 173:1967-1978. [PMID: 34455610 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nepenthes ampullaria is a unique carnivorous tropical pitcher plant with the detritivorous capability of sequestering nutrients from leaf litter apart from being insectivorous. The changes in the protein composition and protease activity of its pitcher fluids during the early opening of pitchers (D0 and D3C) were investigated via a proteomics approach and a controlled protein depletion experiment (D3L). A total of 193 proteins were identified. Common proteins such as pathogenesis-related protein, proteases (Nep [EC:3.4.23.12], SCP [EC:3.4.16.-]), peroxidase [EC:1.11.1.7], GDSL esterase/lipase [EC:3.1.1.-], and purple acid phosphatase [EC:3.1.3.2] were found in high abundance in the D0 pitchers and were replenished in D3L samples. This reflects their importance for biological processes upon pitcher opening. Meanwhile, prey-inducible chitinases [EC:3.2.1.14] were found in D0 but not in D3C and D3L samples, which suggests their degradation in the absence of prey. Protease activity assays demonstrated the replenishment of proteases in D3L with similar levels of proteolytic activities to that of D3C samples. This supports a feedback mechanism and signaling in the molecular regulation of endogenous protein secretion, turnover, and activity in Nepenthes pitcher fluids. Furthermore, we also discovered several new enzymes (XTH [EC:2.4.1.207], PAE [EC:3.1.1.98]) with possible functions in cell wall degradation that could contribute to the detritivory habit of N. ampullaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishiesvari Ravee
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Anis Baharin
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Weng-Tim Cho
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Tiew-Yik Ting
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hoe-Han Goh
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
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Chan EWL, Chin MY, Low YH, Tan HY, Ooi YS, Chong CW. The Antibacterial Agent Identified from Acidocella spp. in the Fluid of Nepenthes gracilis Against Multidrug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae: A Functional Metagenomic Approach. Microb Drug Resist 2020; 27:1018-1028. [PMID: 33325795 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2020.0311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims: The fluid of Nepenthes gracilis harbors diverse bacterial taxa that could serve as a gene pool for the discovery of the new genre of antimicrobial agents against multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae. The aim of this study was to explore the presence of antibacterial genes in the fluids of N. gracilis growing in the wild. Methods: Using functional metagenomic approach, fosmid clones were isolated and screened for antibacterial activity against three strains of K. pneumoniae. A clone that exhibited the most potent antibacterial activity was sent for sequencing to identify the genes responsible for the observed activity. The secondary metabolites secreted by the selected clone was sequentially extracted using hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate. The chemical profiles of a clone (C6) hexane extract were determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Results: Fosmid clone C6 from the fluid of pitcher plant that exhibited antibacterial activity against three strains of K. pneumoniae was isolated using functional metagenome approach. A majority of the open reading frames detected from C6 were affiliated with the largely understudied Acidocella genus. Among them, the gene that encodes for coproporphyrinogen III oxidase in the heme biosynthesis pathway could be involved in the observed antibacterial activity. Based on the GC-MS analysis, the identities of the putative bioactive compounds were 2,5-di-tert-butylphenol and 1-ethyl-2-methyl cyclododecane. Conclusions: The gene that encodes for coproporphyrinogen III oxidase in the heme biosynthesis pathway as well as the secondary metabolites, namely 2,5-di-tert-butylphenol and 1-ethyl-2-methyl cyclododecane could be the potential antibacterial molecules responsible for the antibacterial activity of C6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Wan Ling Chan
- Institute for Research, Development and Innovation, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mei Yu Chin
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yi Hui Low
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hui Yin Tan
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yi Sing Ooi
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Chun Wie Chong
- Institute for Research, Development and Innovation, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
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Dkhar J, Bhaskar YK, Lynn A, Pareek A. Pitchers of Nepenthes khasiana express several digestive-enzyme encoding genes, harbor mostly fungi and probably evolved through changes in the expression of leaf polarity genes. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 20:524. [PMID: 33203377 PMCID: PMC7672872 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-020-02663-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A structural phenomenon seen in certain lineages of angiosperms that has captivated many scholars including Charles Darwin is the evolution of plant carnivory. Evidently, these structural features collectively termed carnivorous syndrome, evolved to aid nutritional acquisition from attracted, captured and digested prey. We now understand why plant carnivory evolved but how carnivorous plants acquired these attributes remains a mystery. In an attempt to understand the evolution of Nepenthes pitcher and to shed more light on its role in prey digestion, we analyzed the transcriptome data of the highly specialized Nepenthes khasiana leaf comprising the leaf base lamina, tendril and the different parts/zones of the pitcher tube viz. digestive zone, waxy zone and lid. RESULTS In total, we generated around 262 million high-quality Illumina reads. Reads were pooled, normalized and de novo assembled to generate a reference transcriptome of about 412,224 transcripts. We then estimated transcript abundance along the N. khasiana leaf by mapping individual reads from each part/zone to the reference transcriptome. Correlation-based hierarchical clustering analysis of 27,208 commonly expressed genes indicated functional relationship and similar cellular processes underlying the development of the leaf base and the pitcher, thereby implying that the Nepenthes pitcher is indeed a modified leaf. From a list of 2386 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), we identified transcripts encoding key enzymes involved in prey digestion and protection against pathogen attack, some of which are expressed at high levels in the digestive zone. Interestingly, many of these enzyme-encoding genes are also expressed in the unopened N. khasiana pitcher. Transcripts showing homology to both bacteria and fungi were also detected; and in the digestive zone, fungi are more predominant as compared to bacteria. Taking cues from histology and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) photomicrographs, we found altered expressions of key regulatory genes involved in leaf development. Of particular interest, the expression of class III HOMEODOMAIN-LEUCINE ZIPPER (HD-ZIPIII) and ARGONAUTE (AGO) genes were upregulated in the tendril. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that N. khasiana pitchers employ a wide range of enzymes for prey digestion and plant defense, harbor microbes and probably evolved through altered expression of leaf polarity genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Dkhar
- Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
- Agrotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh 176061 India
| | - Yogendra Kumar Bhaskar
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
| | - Andrew Lynn
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
| | - Ashwani Pareek
- Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
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Lam WN, Ling J, Lum TQH, Tan HTW. Ecology and natural history of swimming pitcher mites (
Creutzeria
spp., Histiostomatidae) from the traps of
Nepenthes
pitcher plants. J Zool (1987) 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W. N. Lam
- Department of Biological Sciences National University of Singapore Singapore City Singapore
| | - J. Ling
- Department of Biological Sciences National University of Singapore Singapore City Singapore
| | - T. Q. H. Lum
- Department of Biological Sciences National University of Singapore Singapore City Singapore
| | - H. T. W. Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences National University of Singapore Singapore City Singapore
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Integrated Hydrolysis of Mixed Agro-Waste for a Second Generation Biorefinery Using Nepenthes mirabilis Pod Digestive Fluids. Processes (Basel) 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/pr7020064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To sustainably operate a biorefinery with a low cost input in a commercial setting, the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass must be undertaken in a manner which will impart environmental tolerance while reducing fermenter inhibitors from the delignification process. The challenge lies with the highly recalcitrant lignin structure, which limits the conversion of the holocelluloses to fermentable total reducing sugars (TRS). Due to these challenges, sustainable and innovative methods to pre-treat biomass must be developed for delignocellulolytic operations. Herein, Nepenthes mirabilis digestive fluids shown to have ligninolytic, cellulolytic and xylanolytic activities were used as an enzyme cocktail to hydrolyse mixed agro-waste constituted by Citrus sinensis (orange), Malus domestica (apple) peels, cobs from Zea mays (maize) and Quercus robur (oak) yard waste. The digestive fluids contained carboxylesterases (529.41 ± 30.50 U/L), β-glucosidases (251.94 ± 11.48 U/L) and xylanases (36.09 ± 18.04 U/L), constituting an enzymatic cocktail with significant potential for the reduction in total residual phenolic compounds (TRPCs), while being appropriate for holocellulose hydrolysis. Furthermore, the maximum TRS obtainable was 310 ± 5.19 mg/L within 168 h, while the TRPCs were reduced from 6.25 ± 0.18 to 4.26 ± 0.09 mg/L, which was lower than that observed when conventional methods were used. Overall, N. mirabilis digestive fluids demonstrated an ability to support biocatalytic processes with minimised cellulases hydrolysis interference. Therefore, the digestive enzymes in N. mirabilis pods can be used in an integrated system for feedstock hydrolysis in a second generation biorefinery.
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Young EB, Sielicki J, Grothjan JJ. Regulation of Hydrolytic Enzyme Activity in Aquatic Microbial Communities Hosted by Carnivorous Pitcher Plants. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2018; 76:885-898. [PMID: 29679120 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-018-1187-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Carnivorous pitcher plants Sarracenia purpurea host diverse eukaryotic and bacterial communities which aid in insect prey digestion, but little is known about the functional processes mediated by the microbial communities. This study aimed to connect pitcher community diversity with functional nutrient transformation processes, identifying bacterial taxa, and measuring regulation of hydrolytic enzyme activity in response to prey and alternative nutrient sources. Genetic analysis identified diverse bacterial taxa known to produce hydrolytic enzyme activities. Chitinase, protease, and phosphatase activities were measured using fluorometric assays. Enzyme activity in field pitchers was positively correlated with bacterial abundance, and activity was suppressed by antibiotics suggesting predominantly bacterial sources of chitinase and protease activity. Fungi, algae, and rotifers observed could also contribute enzyme activity, but fresh insect prey released minimal chitinase activity. Activity of chitinase and proteases was upregulated in response to insect additions, and phosphatase activity was suppressed by phosphate additions. Particulate organic P in prey was broken down, appearing as increasing dissolved organic and inorganic P pools within 14 days. Chitinase and protease were not significantly suppressed by availability of dissolved organic substrates, though organic C and N stimulated bacterial growth, resulting in elevated enzyme activity. This comprehensive field and experimental study show that pitcher plant microbial communities dynamically regulate hydrolytic enzyme activity, to digest prey nutrients to simpler forms, mediating biogeochemical nutrient transformations and release of nutrients for microbial and host plant uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica B Young
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3209 N Maryland Ave, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA.
| | - Jessica Sielicki
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3209 N Maryland Ave, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Jacob J Grothjan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3209 N Maryland Ave, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
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Saganová M, Bokor B, Stolárik T, Pavlovič A. Regulation of enzyme activities in carnivorous pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes. PLANTA 2018; 248:451-464. [PMID: 29767335 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-2917-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Nepenthes regulates enzyme activities by sensing stimuli from the insect prey. Protein is the best inductor mimicking the presence of an insect prey. Carnivorous plants of the genus Nepenthes have evolved passive pitcher traps for prey capture. In this study, we investigated the ability of chemical signals from a prey (chitin, protein, and ammonium) to induce transcription and synthesis of digestive enzymes in Nepenthes × Mixta. We used real-time PCR and specific antibodies generated against the aspartic proteases nepenthesins, and type III and type IV chitinases to investigate the induction of digestive enzyme synthesis in response to different chemical stimuli from the prey. Transcription of nepenthesins was strongly induced by ammonium, protein and live prey; chitin induced transcription only very slightly. This is in accordance with the amount of released enzyme and proteolytic activity in the digestive fluid. Although transcription of type III chitinase was induced by all investigated stimuli, a significant accumulation of the enzyme in the digestive fluid was found mainly after protein and live prey addition. Protein and live prey were also the best inducers for accumulation of type IV chitinase in the digestive fluid. Although ammonium strongly induced transcription of all investigated genes probably through membrane depolarization, strong acidification of the digestive fluid affected stability and abundance of both chitinases in the digestive fluid. The study showed that the proteins are universal inductors of enzyme activities in carnivorous pitcher plants best mimicking the presence of insect prey. This is not surprising, because proteins are a much valuable source of nitrogen, superior to chitin. Extensive vesicular activity was observed in prey-activated glands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Saganová
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina B2, 842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Boris Bokor
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina B2, 842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Comenius University Science Park, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 8, 841 04, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Tibor Stolárik
- Department of Plant Physiology, Plant Science and Biodiversity Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 23, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Andrej Pavlovič
- Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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Ravee R, Mohd Salleh F‘I, Goh HH. Discovery of digestive enzymes in carnivorous plants with focus on proteases. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4914. [PMID: 29888132 PMCID: PMC5993016 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Carnivorous plants have been fascinating researchers with their unique characters and bioinspired applications. These include medicinal trait of some carnivorous plants with potentials for pharmaceutical industry. METHODS This review will cover recent progress based on current studies on digestive enzymes secreted by different genera of carnivorous plants: Drosera (sundews), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Nepenthes (tropical pitcher plants), Sarracenia (North American pitcher plants), Cephalotus (Australian pitcher plants), Genlisea (corkscrew plants), and Utricularia (bladderworts). RESULTS Since the discovery of secreted protease nepenthesin in Nepenthes pitcher, digestive enzymes from carnivorous plants have been the focus of many studies. Recent genomics approaches have accelerated digestive enzyme discovery. Furthermore, the advancement in recombinant technology and protein purification helped in the identification and characterisation of enzymes in carnivorous plants. DISCUSSION These different aspects will be described and discussed in this review with focus on the role of secreted plant proteases and their potential industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishiesvari Ravee
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Faris ‘Imadi Mohd Salleh
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hoe-Han Goh
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
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Lam WN, Chong KY, Anand GS, Tan HTW. Dipteran larvae and microbes facilitate nutrient sequestration in the Nepenthes gracilis pitcher plant host. Biol Lett 2017; 13:rsbl.2016.0928. [PMID: 28250210 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2016.0928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The fluid-containing traps of Nepenthes carnivorous pitcher plants (Nepenthaceae) are often inhabited by organisms known as inquilines. Dipteran larvae are key components of such communities and are thought to facilitate pitcher nitrogen sequestration by converting prey protein into inorganic nitrogen, although this has never been demonstrated in Nepenthes Pitcher fluids are also inhabited by microbes, although the relationship(s) between these and the plant is still unclear. In this study, we examined the hypothesis of digestive mutualism between N. gracilis pitchers and both dipteran larvae and fluid microbes. Using dipteran larvae, prey and fluid volumes mimicking in situ pitcher conditions, we conducted in vitro experiments and measured changes in available fluid nitrogen in response to dipteran larvae and microbe presence. We showed that the presence of dipteran larvae resulted in significantly higher and faster releases of ammonium and soluble protein into fluids in artificial pitchers, and that the presence of fluid microbes did likewise for ammonium. We showed also that niche segregation occurs between phorid and culicid larvae, with the former fragmenting prey carcasses and the latter suppressing fluid microbe levels. These results clarify the relationships between several key pitcher-dwelling organisms, and show that pitcher communities facilitate nutrient sequestration in their host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weng Ngai Lam
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Kwek Yan Chong
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Ganesh S Anand
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Hugh Tiang Wah Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Republic of Singapore
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12
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Rey M, Yang M, Lee L, Zhang Y, Sheff JG, Sensen CW, Mrazek H, Halada P, Man P, McCarville JL, Verdu EF, Schriemer DC. Addressing proteolytic efficiency in enzymatic degradation therapy for celiac disease. Sci Rep 2016; 6:30980. [PMID: 27481162 PMCID: PMC4969619 DOI: 10.1038/srep30980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Celiac disease is triggered by partially digested gluten proteins. Enzyme therapies that complete protein digestion in vivo could support a gluten-free diet, but the barrier to completeness is high. Current options require enzyme amounts on the same order as the protein meal itself. In this study, we evaluated proteolytic components of the carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes spp.) for use in this context. Remarkably low doses enhance gliadin solubilization rates, and degrade gliadin slurries within the pH and temporal constraints of human gastric digestion. Potencies in excess of 1200:1 (substrate-to-enzyme) are achieved. Digestion generates small peptides through nepenthesin and neprosin, the latter a novel enzyme defining a previously-unknown class of prolyl endoprotease. The digests also exhibit reduced TG2 conversion rates in the immunogenic regions of gliadin, providing a twin mechanism for evading T-cell recognition. When sensitized and dosed with enzyme-treated gliadin, NOD/DQ8 mice did not show intestinal inflammation, when compared to mice challenged with only pepsin-treated gliadin. The low enzyme load needed for effective digestion suggests that gluten detoxification can be achieved in a meal setting, using metered dosing based on meal size. We demonstrate this by showing efficient antigen processing at total substrate-to-enzyme ratios exceeding 12,000:1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martial Rey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada,Structural Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Paris, France
| | - Menglin Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Linda Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Ye Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joey G. Sheff
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Christoph W. Sensen
- Graz University of Technology, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Graz, Austria
| | - Hynek Mrazek
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Halada
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Man
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Justin L McCarville
- Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Elena F. Verdu
- Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - David C. Schriemer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada,
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13
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Lee L, Zhang Y, Ozar B, Sensen CW, Schriemer DC. Carnivorous Nutrition in Pitcher Plants (Nepenthes spp.) via an Unusual Complement of Endogenous Enzymes. J Proteome Res 2016; 15:3108-17. [PMID: 27436081 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Plants belonging to the genus Nepenthes are carnivorous, using specialized pitfall traps called "pitchers" that attract, capture, and digest insects as a primary source of nutrients. We have used RNA sequencing to generate a cDNA library from the Nepenthes pitchers and applied it to mass spectrometry-based identification of the enzymes secreted into the pitcher fluid using a nonspecific digestion strategy superior to trypsin in this application. This first complete catalog of the pitcher fluid subproteome includes enzymes across a variety of functional classes. The most abundant proteins present in the secreted fluid are proteases, nucleases, peroxidases, chitinases, a phosphatase, and a glucanase. Nitrogen recovery involves a particularly rich complement of proteases. In addition to the two expected aspartic proteases, we discovered three novel nepenthensins, two prolyl endopeptidases that we name neprosins, and a putative serine carboxypeptidase. Additional proteins identified are relevant to pathogen-defense and secretion mechanisms. The full complement of acid-stable enzymes discovered in this study suggests that carnivory in the genus Nepenthes can be sustained by plant-based mechanisms alone and does not absolutely require bacterial symbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Ye Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Brittany Ozar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Christoph W Sensen
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Graz University of Technology , Graz 8010, Austria
| | - David C Schriemer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
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Kanokratana P, Mhuanthong W, Laothanachareon T, Tangphatsornruang S, Eurwilaichitr L, Kruetreepradit T, Mayes S, Champreda V. Comparative Study of Bacterial Communities in Nepenthes Pitchers and Their Correlation to Species and Fluid Acidity. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2016; 72:381-93. [PMID: 27287538 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-016-0798-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Pitchers are specialized digestive organs of carnivorous plants which evolved for trapping prey and represent a unique environment harboring hidden diversity of unexplored microbes forming transient hydrolytic microcosms. In this study, the diversity of bacterial communities in the pitcher fluids of seven local Nepenthes found in Thailand was assessed by tagged 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene amplicon sequencing on an Ion PGM™ platform. A total of 1,101,000 filtered sequences were obtained which were taxonomically classified into 20 phyla, 48 classes, 72 orders, 153 families, and 442 genera while the remainder (1.43 %) could not be assigned to any existing taxa. Proteobacteria represented the predominant members in closed pitchers and more diversified bacterial taxa particularly Bacteriodetes and Actinobacteria, showed increasing abundance in open pitchers containing insect bodies. Principal coordinate analysis revealed that distribution of bacterial taxa was not significantly related to the Nepenthes species but strongly correlated to the pH of the pitcher fluids (pH 1.7-6.7). Acidicella was a highly dominant bacterial genus in acidic pitcher fluids while Dyella and Mycobacterium were also common genera in most pitchers. A unique microbial community structure was found in Nepenthes ampullaria which could reflect their adaptation to digest leaf litter, in addition to insect prey. The work revealed the highly unexplored nature of bacterial microcosms in Nepenthes pitcher fluids and provides insights into their community structure in this unique ecological system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pattanop Kanokratana
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand.
| | - Wuttichai Mhuanthong
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Thanaporn Laothanachareon
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Sithichoke Tangphatsornruang
- Genome Institute, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Thailand Science Park, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Lily Eurwilaichitr
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Trongtham Kruetreepradit
- Southeast Asian Nepenthes Study and Research Foundation (SEANSRF), PO Box 36, Lamai, Koh Samui, Suratthani, 84310, Thailand
| | - Shawn Mayes
- Southeast Asian Nepenthes Study and Research Foundation (SEANSRF), PO Box 36, Lamai, Koh Samui, Suratthani, 84310, Thailand
| | - Verawat Champreda
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
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15
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Butts CT, Zhang X, Kelly JE, Roskamp KW, Unhelkar MH, Freites JA, Tahir S, Martin RW. Sequence comparison, molecular modeling, and network analysis predict structural diversity in cysteine proteases from the Cape sundew, Drosera capensis. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2016; 14:271-82. [PMID: 27471585 PMCID: PMC4949590 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Carnivorous plants represent a so far underexploited reservoir of novel proteases with potentially useful activities. Here we investigate 44 cysteine proteases from the Cape sundew, Drosera capensis, predicted from genomic DNA sequences. D. capensis has a large number of cysteine protease genes; analysis of their sequences reveals homologs of known plant proteases, some of which are predicted to have novel properties. Many functionally significant sequence and structural features are observed, including targeting signals and occluding loops. Several of the proteases contain a new type of granulin domain. Although active site residues are conserved, the sequence identity of these proteases to known proteins is moderate to low; therefore, comparative modeling with all-atom refinement and subsequent atomistic MD-simulation is used to predict their 3D structures. The structure prediction data, as well as analysis of protein structure networks, suggest multifarious variations on the papain-like cysteine protease structural theme. This in silico methodology provides a general framework for investigating a large pool of sequences that are potentially useful for biotechnology applications, enabling informed choices about which proteins to investigate in the laboratory. 44 new cysteine proteases from the carnivorous plant Drosera capensis are described. Structure prediction and molecular dynamics simulation predict overall folds similar to papain. Functionally significant sequence and structural features are observed, including targeting signals and occluding loops. Several of the proteases contain a new type of granulin domain. Protein structure networks reveal global differences in interactions among chemical groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carter T Butts
- Department of Sociology, UC Irvine, USA; Department of Sociology, UC Irvine, USA; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, UC Irvine, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Rachel W Martin
- Department of Chemistry, UC Irvine, USA; Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, UC Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697 USA
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16
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Sickel W, Grafe TU, Meuche I, Steffan-Dewenter I, Keller A. Bacterial Diversity and Community Structure in Two Bornean Nepenthes Species with Differences in Nitrogen Acquisition Strategies. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2016; 71:938-53. [PMID: 26790863 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-015-0723-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Carnivorous plants of the genus Nepenthes have been studied for over a century, but surprisingly little is known about associations with microorganisms. The two species Nepenthes rafflesiana and Nepenthes hemsleyana differ in their pitcher-mediated nutrient sources, sequestering nitrogen from arthropod prey and arthropods as well as bat faeces, respectively. We expected bacterial communities living in the pitchers to resemble this diet difference. Samples were taken from different parts of the pitchers (leaf, peristome, inside, outside, digestive fluid) of both species. Bacterial communities were determined using culture-independent high-throughput amplicon sequencing. Bacterial richness and community structure were similar in leaves, peristomes, inside and outside walls of both plant species. Regarding digestive fluids, bacterial richness was higher in N. hemsleyana than in N. rafflesiana. Additionally, digestive fluid communities were highly variable in structure, with strain-specific differences in community composition between replicates. Acidophilic taxa were mostly of low abundance, except the genus Acidocella, which strikingly reached extremely high levels in two N. rafflesiana fluids. In N. hemsleyana fluid, some taxa classified as vertebrate gut symbionts as well as saprophytes were enriched compared to N. rafflesiana, with saprophytes constituting potential competitors for nutrients. The high variation in community structure might be caused by a number of biotic and abiotic factors. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria were present in both study species, which might provide essential nutrients to the plant at times of low prey capture and/or rare encounters with bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Sickel
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - T Ulmar Grafe
- Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, BE, 1410, Brunei
| | - Ivonne Meuche
- Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, BE, 1410, Brunei
| | - Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Keller
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.
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17
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Bacterial diversity and composition in the fluid of pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes. Syst Appl Microbiol 2015; 38:330-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2015.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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18
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Bazile V, Le Moguédec G, Marshall DJ, Gaume L. Fluid physico-chemical properties influence capture and diet in Nepenthes pitcher plants. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2015; 115:705-16. [PMID: 25672361 PMCID: PMC4343297 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcu266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Nepenthes pitcher plants have evolved modified leaves with slippery surfaces and enzymatic fluids that trap and digest prey, faeces and/or plant detritus. Although the fluid's contribution to insect capture is recognized, the physico-chemical properties involved remain underexplored and may vary among species, influencing their diet type. This study investigates the contributions of acidity and viscoelasticity in the fluid's capture efficiency of two ant and two fly species in four Nepenthes species with different nutrition strategies. METHODS Four Nepenthes species were studied, namely N. rafflesiana, N. gracilis, N. hemsleyana and N. ampullaria. Fluid was collected from pitchers of varying ages from plants growing in the field and immediately transferred to glass vials, and individual ants (tribe Campotini, Fomicinae) and flies (Calliphora vomitoria and Drosophila melanogaster) were dropped in and observed for 5 min. Water-filled vials were used as controls. Survival and lifetime data were analysed using models applied to right-censored observations. Additional laboratory experiments were carried out in which C. vomitoria flies were immersed in pH-controlled aqueous solutions and observed for 5 min. KEY RESULTS Pitcher fluid differed among Nepenthes species as regards insect retention capacity and time-to-kill, with differences observed between prey types. Only the fluids of the reputedly insectivorous species were very acidic and/or viscoelastic and retained significantly more insects than the water controls. Viscoelastic fluids were fatal to flies and were able to trap the broadest diversity of insects. Younger viscoelastic fluids showed a better retention ability than older fluids, although with less rapid killing ability, suggesting that a chemical action follows a mechanical one. Insect retention increased exponentially with fluid viscoelasticity, and this happened more abruptly and at a lower threshold for flies compared with ants. Flies were more often retained if they fell into the traps on their backs, thus wetting their wings. Insect retention and death rate increased with fluid acidity, with a lower threshold for ants than for flies, and the time-to-kill decreased with increasing acidity. The laboratory experiments showed that fewer flies escaped from acidic solutions compared with water. CONCLUSIONS In addition to viscoelasticity, the pitcher's fluid acidity and wetting ability influence the fate of insects and hence the diet of Nepenthes. The plants might select the prey that they retain by manipulating the secretion of H(+) ions and polysaccharides in their pitcher fluid. This in turn might participate in possible adaptive radiation of this genus with regard to nutrient sequestration strategy. These plants might even structurally influence insect fall-orientation and capture-probability, inspiring biomimetic designs for pest control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Bazile
- Université Montpellier II, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, INRA, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, Biology Department, University of Brunei Darussalam, TungkuLink, Gadong BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam and CNRS, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Gilles Le Moguédec
- Université Montpellier II, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, INRA, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, Biology Department, University of Brunei Darussalam, TungkuLink, Gadong BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam and CNRS, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - David J Marshall
- Université Montpellier II, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, INRA, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, Biology Department, University of Brunei Darussalam, TungkuLink, Gadong BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam and CNRS, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Laurence Gaume
- Université Montpellier II, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, INRA, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France, Biology Department, University of Brunei Darussalam, TungkuLink, Gadong BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam and CNRS, UMR AMAP: Botanique et bioinformatique de l'architecture des plantes, CIRAD TA A51/PS2 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France
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19
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Chou LY, Clarke CM, Dykes GA. Bacterial communities associated with the pitcher fluids of three Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) pitcher plant species growing in the wild. Arch Microbiol 2014; 196:709-17. [PMID: 25005571 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-014-1011-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Nepenthes pitcher plants produce modified jug-shaped leaves to attract, trap and digest insect prey. We used 16S rDNA cloning and sequencing to compare bacterial communities in pitcher fluids of each of three species, namely Nepenthes ampullaria, Nepenthes gracilis and Nepenthes mirabilis, growing in the wild. In contrast to previous greenhouse-based studies, we found that both opened and unopened pitchers harbored bacterial DNA. Pitchers of N. mirabilis had higher bacterial diversity as compared to other Nepenthes species. The composition of the bacterial communities could be different between pitcher types for N. mirabilis (ANOSIM: R = 0.340, p < 0.05). Other Nepenthes species had similar bacterial composition between pitcher types. SIMPER showed that more than 50 % of the bacterial taxa identified from the open pitchers of N. mirabilis were not found in other groups. Our study suggests that bacteria in N. mirabilis are divided into native and nonnative groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Yiung Chou
- School of Science, Monash University, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 46150, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
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20
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Onal Okyay T, Frigi Rodrigues D. High throughput colorimetric assay for rapid urease activity quantification. J Microbiol Methods 2013; 95:324-6. [PMID: 24103728 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2013.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Revised: 09/24/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A novel high throughput colorimetric urease activity assay was compared to the Nessler method. The new method employs phenol red to determine the urease activity. This method reduces significantly sample processing time and allows real-time investigations. This method is rapid, sensitive, easy, cost-effective, and does not use any toxic chemical reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tugba Onal Okyay
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77004, USA
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21
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Michalko J, Socha P, Mészáros P, Blehová A, Libantová J, Moravčíková J, Matušíková I. Glucan-rich diet is digested and taken up by the carnivorous sundew (Drosera rotundifolia L.): implication for a novel role of plant β-1,3-glucanases. PLANTA 2013; 238:715-725. [PMID: 23832529 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-013-1925-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Carnivory in plants evolved as an adaptation strategy to nutrient-poor environments. Thanks to specialized traps, carnivorous plants can gain nutrients from various heterotrophic sources such as small insects. Digestion in traps requires a coordinated action of several hydrolytic enzymes that break down complex substances into simple absorbable nutrients. Among these, several pathogenesis-related proteins including β-1,3-glucanases have previously been identified in digestive fluid of some carnivorous species. Here we show that a single acidic endo-β-1,3-glucanase of ~50 kDa is present in the digestive fluid of the flypaper-trapped sundew (Drosera rotundifolia L.). The enzyme is inducible with a complex plant β-glucan laminarin from which it releases simple saccharides when supplied to leaves as a substrate. Moreover, thin-layer chromatography of digestive exudates showed that the simplest degradation products (especially glucose) are taken up by the leaves. These results for the first time point on involvement of β-1,3-glucanases in digestion of carnivorous plants and demonstrate the uptake of saccharide-based compounds by traps. Such a strategy could enable the plant to utilize other types of nutritional sources e.g., pollen grains, fungal spores or detritus from environment. Possible multiple roles of β-1,3-glucanases in the digestive fluid of carnivorous sundew are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaroslav Michalko
- Institute of Plant Genetics and Biotechnology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Akademická 2, P.O. Box 39A, 950 07, Nitra, Slovak Republic,
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