A global view of the oncogenic landscape in nasopharyngeal carcinoma: an integrated analysis at the genetic and expression levels

Oncoviruses: Induction of cancer development and metastasis by increasing anoikis resistance

The phenomenon of cell death is a vital aspect in the regulation of aberrant cells such as cancer cells. Anoikis is a kind of cell death that occurs when cells get separated from the extracellular matrix. Some cancer cells can inhibit anoikis in order to progress metastasis. One of the key variables that might be implicated in anoikis resistance (AR) is viral infections. The most important viruses involved in this process are Epstein-Barr virus, human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, human herpes virus 8, human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1, and hepatitis C virus. A better understanding of how carcinogenic viruses suppress anoikis might be helpful in developing an effective treatment for virus-associated cancers. In the current study, we review the role of the mentioned viruses and their gene products in anoikis inhibition.

Screening of core genes and prediction of ceRNA regulation mechanism of circRNAs in nasopharyngeal carcinoma by bioinformatics analysis

Background: Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) represents a highly aggressive malignant tumor. Competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNA) regulation is a common regulatory mechanism in tumors. The ceRNA network links the functions between mRNAs and ncRNAs, thus playing an important regulatory role in diseases. This study screened the potential key genes in NPC and predicted regulatory mechanisms using bioinformatics analysis.

Methods: The merged microarray data of three NPC-related mRNA expression microarrays from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and the expression data of tumor samples or normal samples from the nasopharynx and tonsil in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were both subjected to differential analysis and Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA). The results from two different databases were intersected with WGCNA results to obtain potential regulatory genes in NPC, followed by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional enrichment analyses. The hub-gene in candidate genes was discerned through Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) analysis and its upstream regulatory mechanism was predicted by miRwalk and circbank databases.

Results: Totally 68 upregulated genes and 96 downregulated genes in NPC were screened through GEO and TCGA. According to WGCNA, the NPC-related modules were screened from GEO and TCGA analysis results, and the genes in the modules were obtained. After the results of differential analysis and WGCNA were intersected, 74 differentially expressed candidate genes associated with NPC were discerned. Finally, fibronectin 1 (FN1) was identified as a hub-gene in NPC. Prediction of upstream regulatory mechanisms of FN1 suggested that FN1 may be regulated by ceRNA mechanisms involving multiple circRNAs, thereby influencing NPC progression through ceRNA regulation.

Conclusion: FN1 is identified as a key regulator in NPC development and is likely to be regulated by numerous circRNA-mediated ceRNA mechanisms.

EGFR Mutation in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a malignant tumor of the nasopharynx. However, while radiotherapy is the primary choice of treatment, the treatment may fail due to distant metastasis in most patients at an advanced stage. Treatment agents against some mutations have led to the development of personalized treatment regimens. EGFR is one of the most studied molecules and has played a role in the development of a large number of cancer types. We aimed to demonstrate the EGFR mutation status in nasopharyngeal carcinomas. Twenty-six nasopharyngeal carcinomas were included in the study. EGFR mutation analysis was applied to the cases by the real-time PCR method. The results were evaluated statistically. No EGFR mutation was detected in any of the cases. Although EGFR expression is frequently shown in nasopharyngeal carcinomas immunohistochemically, the same positivity was not shown in genetic analysis. This result shows that the use of anti-EGFR agents in nasopharyngeal carcinoma treatment will not be effective.

The Highly Expressed IFIT1 in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Enhances Proliferation, Migration, and Invasion of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Cells

In this study, we aimed to identify potential targets modulating the progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) using integrated bioinformatics analysis and functional assays. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between NPC and normal tissues samples were obtained from publicly availably microarray datasets (GSE68799, GSE34573, and GSE53819) in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The bioinformatics analysis identified 49 common DEGs from three GEO datasets, which were mainly enriched in cytokine/chemokine pathways and extracellular matrix organization pathway. Further protein-protein interaction network analysis identified 11 hub genes from the 49 DEGs. The 11 hub genes were significantly up-regulated in the NPC tissues when compared to normal tissues by analyzing the Oncomine database. The 8 hub genes including COL5A1, COL7A1, COL22A1, CXCL11, IFI44L, IFIT1, RSAD2, and USP18 were significantly up-regulated in the NPC tissues when compared to normal tissues by using the Oncomine database. Further validation studies showed that IFIT1 was up-regulated in the NPC cells. Knockdown of IFI1T1 suppressed the proliferation, migration, and invasion of NPC cells; while IFIT1 overexpression promoted the proliferation, migration, and invasion of NPC cells. In conclusion, a total of 49 DEGs and 11 hub genes in NPC using the integrated bioinformatics analysis. IFIT1 was up-regulated in the NPC cells lines, and IFIT1 may act as an oncogene by promoting NPC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion.

High-Risk Human Papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr Virus Coinfection: A Potential Role in Head and Neck Carcinogenesis

Simple Summary

A subset of carcinomas that arise in the head and neck region show a viral etiology. In fact, a subgroup of oropharyngeal cancers are caused by some types of human papillomavirus (HPV), so-called high-risk (HR)-HPVs, whereas undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinomas are etiologically related to Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). However, studies have reported the presence of both HR-HPV and EBV in some types of head and neck cancers. In this review, we discuss the potential contribution and role of HR-HPV/EBV coinfection in head and neck carcinogenesis, as well as the mechanisms that are potentially involved. In addition, HR-HPV/EBV interaction models are proposed.

Abstract

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) are recognized oncogenic viruses involved in the development of a subset of head and neck cancers (HNCs). HR-HPVs are etiologically associated with a subset of oropharyngeal carcinomas (OPCs), whereas EBV is a recognized etiological agent of undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinomas (NPCs). In this review, we address epidemiological and mechanistic evidence regarding a potential cooperation between HR-HPV and EBV for HNC development. Considering that: (1) both HR-HPV and EBV infections require cofactors for carcinogenesis; and (2) both oropharyngeal and oral epithelium can be directly exposed to carcinogens, such as alcohol or tobacco smoke, we hypothesize possible interaction mechanisms. The epidemiological and experimental evidence suggests that HR-HPV/EBV cooperation for developing a subset of HNCs is plausible and warrants further investigation.

Human/eukaryotic ribosomal protein L14 (RPL14/eL14) overexpression represses proliferation, migration, invasion and EMT process in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Although human/eukaryotic ribosomal protein L14 (RPL14/eL14) is known to be associated with a variety of cancers, its role in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) remains unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the impact of RPL14(eL14) in NPC. The results of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blot, and immunohistochemical staining revealed that the expression of RPL14(eL14) significantly reduced in NPC tissues and cells. Furthermore, the protein expression of RPL14(eL14) was linked to NPC-related clinical pathological features, including the T and N classification of Tumor Node Metastasis (TNM) staging (all p < 0.05). Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and colony formation assay revealed that RPL14(eL14) overexpression repressed NPC cell proliferation. In cell cycle assay, RPL14(eL14) overexpression significantly blocked NPC cells in S phase. Overexpression of RPL14(eL14) repressed cell migration and invasion in NPC as shown by transwell assay and cell scratch healing assay. In addition, RPL14(eL14) was closely correlated with the expression of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) biomarkers, including E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and vimentin as detected by western blot. In conclusion, our results revealed that RPL14(eL14) may be considered as an antioncogene in NPC, which greatly suppresses cancer progression.

A practical method to screen and identify functioning biomarkers in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a rare malignancy, with the unique geographical and ethnically characteristics of distribution. Gene chip and bioinformatics have been employed to reveal regulatory mechanisms in current functional genomics. However, a practical solution addressing the unresolved aspects of microarray data processing and analysis have been long pursuit. This study developed a new method to improve the accuracy of identifying key biomarkers, namely Unit Gamma Measurement (UGM), accounting for multiple hypotheses test statistics distribution, which could reduce the dependency problem. Three mRNA expression profile of NPC were selected to feed UGM. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified with UGM and hub genes were derived from them to explore their association with NPC using functional enrichment and pathway analysis. 47 potential DEGs were identified by UGM from the 3 selected datasets, and affluent in cysteine-type endopeptidase inhibitor activity, cilium movement, extracellular exosome etc. also participate in ECM-receptor interaction, chemical carcinogenesis, TNF signaling pathway, small cell lung cancer and mismatch repair pathway. Down-regulation of CAPS and WFDC2 can prolongation of the overall survival periods in the patients. ARMC4, SERPINB3, MUC4 etc. have a close relationship with NPC. The UGM is a practical method to identify NPC-associated genes and biomarkers.

Long non-coding RNA FAM133B-2 represses the radio-resistance of nasopharyngeal cancer cells by targeting miR-34a-5p/CDK6 axis

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were found to play roles in various cancers, including nasopharyngeal carcinoma. In this study, we focused on the biological function of the lncRNA FAM133B-2 in the radio-resistance of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The RNA-seq and qRT-PCR analysis showed that FAM133B-2 is highly expressed in the radio-resistant nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells. The following biochemical assays showed that FAM133B-2 represses the nasopharyngeal carcinoma radio-resistance and also affects the apoptosis and proliferation of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells. Further investigations suggested that miR-34a-5p targets FAM133B-2 and also regulates the cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6). All these results suggested that the lncRNA FAM133B-2 might function as a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) for miR-34a-5p in nasopharyngeal carcinoma radio-resistance, thus it may be regarded as a novel prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target in nasopharyngeal carcinoma diagnosis and treatment.

Diagnostic and Prognostic Indications of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a disease that is highly associated with the latent infection of Epstein–Barr virus. The absence of obvious clinical signs at the early stage of the disease has made early diagnosis practically impossible, thereby promoting the establishment and progression of the disease. To enhance the stride for a reliable and less invasive tool for the diagnosis and prognosis of NPC, we synopsize biomarkers belonging to the two most implicated biological domains (oncogenes and tumor suppressors) in NPC disease. Since no single biomarker is sufficient for diagnosis and prognosis, coupled with the fact that the known established methods such as methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR), multiplex methylation-specific PCR, microarray assays, etc., can only accommodate a few biomarkers, we propose a 10-biomarker panel (KIT, LMP1, PIKC3A, miR-141, and miR-18a/b (oncogenic) and p16, RASSF1A, DAP-kinase, miR-9, and miR-26a (tumor suppressors)) based on their diagnostic and prognostic values. This marker set could be explored in a multilevel or single unified assay for the diagnosis and prognosis of NPC. If carefully harnessed and standardized, it is hoped that the proposed marker set would help transform the diagnostic and prognostic realm of NPC, and ultimately, help prevent the life-threatening late-stage NPC disease.

The Epstein-Barr Virus-Encoded EBNA1 Protein Activates the Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP) Signalling Pathway to Promote Carcinoma Cell Migration

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) protein is expressed in all virus-associated malignancies, where it performs an essential role in the maintenance, replication and transcription of the EBV genome. In recent years, it has become apparent that EBNA1 can also influence cellular gene transcription. Here, we demonstrate that EBNA1 is able to stimulate the expression of the Transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) superfamily member, bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP2), with consequential activation of the BMP signalling pathway in carcinoma cell lines. We show that BMP pathway activation is associated with an increase in the migratory capacity of carcinoma cells, an effect that can be ablated by the BMP antagonist, Noggin. Gene expression profiling of authentic EBV-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tumours revealed the consistent presence of BMP ligands, established BMP pathway effectors and putative target genes, constituting a prominent BMP “signature” in this virus-associated cancer. Our findings show that EBNA1 is the major viral-encoded protein responsible for activating the BMP signalling pathway in carcinoma cells and supports a role for this pathway in promoting cell migration and possibly, metastatic spread.

Long Non-Coding RNA SLC25A21-AS1 Promotes Multidrug Resistance in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma by Regulating miR-324-3p/IL-6 Axis

Background

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), one of the most common types of head and neck tumor, occurred in the epithelial lining of the nasopharynx and is mainly prevalent in Southeast Asia and Southern China. However, the molecular mechanisms of NPC multidrug resistance still remained largely unclear.

Methods

The qRT-PCR assay was performed to examine SLC25A21-AS1, miR-324-3p and IL-6 expression in NPC tissues and cell. The CCK8 assay and colony formation assay were used to detect cell growth. In addition, CCK8 assay was performed to detect IC₅₀ values of different drugs in NPC cell.

Results

In this study, we found that SLC25A21-AS1 expression was increased in NPC tissues and cell line, and knockdown of SLC25A21-AS1 inhibited cell growth and MDR in NPC cell. Moreover, SLC25A21-AS1 acted as a ceRNA for miR-324-3p and facilitates NPC cell growth and MDR by regulating the miR-324-3p/IL-6 axis.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrated the role of SLC25A21-AS1/miR-324-3p/IL-6 axis in cell growth and MDR in NPC, which might be a potential prognostic and diagnostic marker in NPC patients and provide new insight into the molecular mechanism of MDR in NPC chemotherapy.

Monoamine oxidase A is down-regulated in EBV-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a highly metastatic cancer that is consistently associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. In this study, we identify for the first time a role for monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) in NPC. MAOA is a mitochondrial enzyme that catalyzes oxidative deamination of neurotransmitters and dietary amines. Depending on the cancer type, MAOA can either have a tumour-promoting or tumour-suppressive role. We show that MAOA is down-regulated in primary NPC tissues and its down-regulation enhances the migration of NPC cells. In addition, we found that EBV infection can down-regulate MAOA expression in both pre-malignant and malignant nasopharyngeal epithelial (NPE) cells. We further demonstrate that MAOA is down-regulated as a result of IL-6/IL-6R/STAT3 signalling and epigenetic mechanisms, effects that might be attributed to EBV infection in NPE cells. Taken together, our data point to a central role for EBV in mediating the tumour suppressive effects of MAOA and that loss of MAOA could be an important step in the pathogenesis of NPC.

Lapatinib sensitivity in nasopharyngeal carcinoma is modulated by SIRT2-mediated FOXO3 deacetylation

Background

Chemoresistance is an obstacle to the successful treatment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Lapatinib is a targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapeutic drug also used to treat NPC, but high doses are often required to achieve a result. To investigate the mechanism for the development of Lapatinib resistance, we characterised a number of NPC cell lines to determine the role of FOXO3 and sirtuins in regulating NPC resistance.

Methods

Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assays, Clonogenic assays, Protein extraction, quantification and western blotting, RT qPCR, Co-immunoprecipitation assay.

Results

To explore novel treatment strategies, we first characterized the Lapatinib-sensitivity of a panel of NPC cell lines by SRB and clonogenic cytotoxic assays and found that the metastatic NPC (C666–1 and 5-8F) cells are highly resistant whereas the poorly metastatic lines (6-10B, TW01 and HK-1) are sensitive to Lapatinib. Western blot analysis of the Lapatinib-sensitive 6-10B and resistant 5-8F NPC cells showed that the expression of phosphorylated/inactive FOXO3 (P-FOXO3;T32), its target FOXM1 and its regulator SIRT2 correlate negatively with Lapatinib response and sensitivity, suggesting that SIRT2 mediates FOXO3 deacetylation to promote Lapatinib resistance. In agreement, clonogenic cytotoxic assays using wild-type and foxo1/3/4^−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) showed that FOXO1/3/4-deletion significantly attenuates Lapatinib-induced cytotoxicity, confirming that FOXO proteins are essential for mediating Lapatinib response. SRB cell viability assays using chemical SIRT inhibitors (i.e. sirtinol, Ex527, AGK2 and AK1) revealed that all SIRT inhibitors can reduce NPC cell viability, but only the SIRT2-specific inhibitors AK1 and AGK2 further enhance the Lapatinib cytotoxicity. Consistently, clonogenic assays demonstrated that the SIRT2 inhibitors AK1 and AGK2 as well as SIRT2-knockdown increase Lapatinib cytotoxicity further in both the sensitive and resistant NPC cells. Co-immunoprecipitation studies showed that besides Lapatinib treatment, SIRT2-pharmaceutical inhibition and silencing also led to an increase in FOXO3 acetylation. Importantly, SIRT2 inhibition and depletion further enhanced Lapatinib-mediated FOXO3-acetylation in NPC cells.

Conclusion

Collectively, our results suggest the involvement of SIRT2-mediated FOXO3 deacetylation in Lapatinib response and sensitivity, and that SIRT2 can specifically antagonise the cytotoxicity of Lapatinib through mediating FOXO3 deacetylation in both sensitive and resistant NPC cells. The present findings also propose that SIRT2 can be an important biomarker for metastatic and Lapatinib resistant NPC and that targeting the SIRT2-FOXO3 axis may provide novel strategies for treating NPC and for overcoming chemoresistance.

EBV-miR-BART7-3p Imposes Stemness in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Cells by Suppressing SMAD7

Cancer stem-like cells, possessing “stemness” properties, play crucial roles in progression, metastasis, and drug resistance in various cancers. Viral microRNAs (such as EBV-miR-BART7-3p), as exogenous regulators, have been discovered to regulate malignant progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), suggesting a possible role of viral microRNAs in imposing stemness. In this study, we found that EBV-miR-BART7-3p induce stemness of NPC cells. We firstly reported that EBV-miR-BART7-3p increased the percentage of side population cells, the development of tumor spheres, and the expression level of stemness markers in vitro. This viral microRNA also enhanced stem-like or cancer-initiating properties of NPC cells in vivo. Besides, we identified SMAD7 as a novel target gene of EBV-miR-BART7-3p in addition to PTEN gene we previously reported; this viral microRNA suppressed SMAD7, led to activation of TGF-β signaling, and eventually enhanced the stemness of NPC cells. Silencing of SMAD7 resembled the effects generated by EBV-miR-BART7-3p in NPC cells. After reconstitution of SMAD7, EBV-miR-BART7-3p-expressing cells underwent a phenotypic reversion. EBV-positive NPC cells were used to enable experimental validation. Finally, we further discovered that EBV-miR-BART7-3p increased chemo-resistance of NPC in vitro and in vivo, supporting that EBV-miR-BART7-3 resulted in increased stemness of NPC cells and lead to drug resistance and cancer recurrence. Overall, this study uncovered a novel mechanism underlying viral microRNA-associated stemness of NPC cells. This viral microRNA and its associated cellular genes may be potential therapeutic targets for restraining chemo-resistance and recurrence of NPC.

Bioinformatics analysis identifies hub genes and pathways in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

The aim of the present study was to identify genes associated with and the underlying mechanisms in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) using microarray data. GSE12452 and GSE34573 gene expression profiles were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. GEO2R was utilized to obtain differentially expressed genes (DEGs). In addition, the Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery was used to perform pathway enrichment analyses for DEGs using the Gene Ontology (GO) annotation along with the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Furthermore, Cytoscape was used to perform module analysis of the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and pathways of the hub genes were studied. A total of 298 genes were ascertained as DEGs in the two datasets. To functionally categorize these DEGs, we obtained 82 supplemented GO terms along with 7 KEGG pathways. Subsequently, a PPI network consisting of 10 hub genes with high degrees of interaction was constructed. These hub genes included cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 1, structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) 4, kinetochore-associated (KNTC) 1, kinesin family member (KIF) 23, aurora kinase A (AURKA), ATAD (ATPase family AAA domain containing) 2, NDC80 kinetochore complex component, enhancer of zeste 2 polycomb repressive complex 2 subunit, BUB1 mitotic checkpoint serine/threonine kinase and protein regulator of cytokinesis 1. CDK1, SMC4, KNTC1, KIF23, AURKA and ATAD2 presented with high areas under the curve in receiver operator curves, suggesting that these genes may be diagnostic markers for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. In conclusion, it was proposed that CDK1, SMC4, KNTC1, KIF23, AURKA and ATAD2 may be involved in the tumorigenesis of NPC. Furthermore, they may be utilized as molecular biomarkers in early diagnosis of NPC.

Investigation of differentially expressed genes in nasopharyngeal carcinoma by integrated bioinformatics analysis

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common malignancy of the head and neck. The aim of the present study was to conduct an integrated bioinformatics analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and to explore the molecular mechanisms of NPC. Two profiling datasets, GSE12452 and GSE34573, were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database and included 44 NPC specimens and 13 normal nasopharyngeal tissues. R software was used to identify the DEGs between NPC and normal nasopharyngeal tissues. Distributions of DEGs in chromosomes were explored based on the annotation file and the CYTOBAND database of DAVID. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were applied. Additionally, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, constructed using the STRING database and visualized by Cytoscape, was used to identify hub genes, key modules and important transcription factors (TFs). A total of 906 DEGs were identified; 434 (47.90%) DEGs were upregulated and 472 (52.10%) were downregulated. The DEGs were demonstrated to be enriched in chromosome 7p15-p14, 2q31, 1q21-q22, 1q21, 4q21 and 1p31-p22. DEGs were mainly enriched for the following GO terms: 'Cilium movement', 'microtubule bundle formation' and 'axoneme assembly'. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that pathways for 'cell cycle', 'DNA replication', 'interleukin-17 signaling', 'amoebiasis' and 'glutathione metabolism' were enriched. In addition, a PPI network comprising 867 nodes and 1,241 edges was constructed. Finally, five hub genes (aurora kinase A, cell division cycle 6, mitotic arrest deficient 2-like 1, DNA topoisomerase 2α and TPX2 microtubule nucleation factor), 8 modules, and 14 TFs were identified. Modules analysis revealed that cyclin-dependent kinase 1 and exportin 1 were involved in the pathway of Epstein-Barr virus infection. In summary, the hub genes, key modules and TFs identified in this study may promote our understanding of the pathogenesis of NPC and require further in-depth investigation.

Identification of key pathways and genes in nasopharyngeal carcinoma using bioinformatics analysis

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is one of the most common malignancies in the head and neck. The aim of the current study was to identify the key pathways and genes involved in NPC through bioinformatics analysis and to identify potential molecular mechanisms underlying NPC proliferation and progression. Three gene expression profiles (GSE12452, GSE34573 and GSE64634) were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. A total of 76 samples were analyzed, of which 59 were NPC samples and 17 were normal samples. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were subsequently conducted. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was constructed using Cytoscape software. Analysis of GSE12452, GSE34573 and GSE64634 datasets identified 1,301 (553 upregulated and 748 downregulated), 1,232 (348 upregulated and 884 downregulated) and 1,218 (555 upregulated and 663 downregulated) DEGs, respectively. Using Venn diagram analysis, 268 DEGs (59 upregulated and 209 downregulated) that intersected all three datasets, were selected for further analysis. The results of GO analysis revealed that upregulated DEGs were significantly enriched in biological processes, including 'cell adhesion', 'cell division', 'mitosis' and 'mitotic cell cycle'. The downregulated DEGs were mainly enriched in 'microtubule-based movement', 'cilium movement', 'cilium axoneme assembly' and 'epithelial cell differentiation'. The KEGG pathway analysis results revealed that the upregulated DEGs were highly associated with several pathways, including 'extracellular matrix-receptor interaction', 'human papillomavirus infection', 'arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy' and 'focal adhesion', whereas the downregulated DEGs were enriched in 'metabolic pathways', 'Huntington's disease', 'fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis' and 'chemical carcinogenesis'. On the basis of the PPI network of the DEGs, the following top 10 hub genes were identified: Dynein axonemal light intermediate chain 1, dynein axonemal intermediate chain 2, calmodulin 1, coiled-coil domain containing 114, dynein axonemal heavy chain 5, radial spoke head 9 homolog, radial spoke head component 4A, NDC80 kinetochore complex component, thymidylate synthetase and coiled-coil domain containing 39. In conclusion, by performing a comprehensive bioinformatics analysis of DEGs, putative targets that could be used to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying NPC were identified.

Epstein-Barr Virus Latent Membrane Protein-1 Induces the Expression of SUMO-1 and SUMO-2/3 in LMP1-positive Lymphomas and Cells

Epstein-Barr Virus latent membrane protein-1 (LMP1) interacts with the SUMO-conjugating enzyme Ubc9, which induces protein sumoylation and may contribute to LMP1-mediated oncogenesis. After analyzing human lymphoma tissues and EBV-positive cell lines, we now document a strong correlation between LMP1 and sumo-1/2/3 or SUMO-1/2/3 levels, and show that LMP1-induced sumo expression requires the activation of NF-κB signaling through CTAR1 and CTAR2. Together, these results point to a second mechanism by which LMP1 dysregulates sumoylation processes and adds EBV-associated lymphomas to the list of malignancies associated with increased SUMO expression.

The Dynamic Roles of TGF-β Signalling in EBV-Associated Cancers

The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signalling pathway plays a critical role in carcinogenesis. It has a biphasic action by initially suppressing tumorigenesis but promoting tumour progression in the later stages of disease. Consequently, the functional outcome of TGF-β signalling is strongly context-dependent and is influenced by various factors including cell, tissue and cancer type. Disruption of this pathway can be caused by various means, including genetic and environmental factors. A number of human viruses have been shown to modulate TGF-β signalling during tumorigenesis. In this review, we describe how this pathway is perturbed in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated cancers and how EBV interferes with TGF-β signal transduction. The role of TGF-β in regulating the EBV life cycle in tumour cells is also discussed.

Curcumol attenuates epithelial-mesenchymal transition of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells via TGF-β1

The current study aimed to identify the effect and primary mechanism of Curcumol on the migration of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells in vitro and in vivo. Curcumol was dissolved in absolute ethyl alcohol and the experiment was performed in NPC 5–8F cells in vitro and in vivo. The effect of different concentrations of Curcumol on cell migration was determined using wound healing and Transwell assays. A cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was also performed in order to determine cell viability. Flow cytometry was used to detect the effect of Curcumol on apoptosis. The expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-associated proteins and genes was evaluated by western blotting, reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and ELISA. In addition, the antitumor activity of Curcumol was investigated in female BALB/C nude mice with orthotopic tumor implants. The results indicated that cell apoptosis was increased and the viability of NPC 5–8F cells was decreased following treatment with Curcumol at doses of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 µM/ml. The results of in vivo experiments indicated that tumor growth and weight were decreased following Curcumol administration. Furthermore, the results of western blotting and RT-qPCR demonstrated that Curcumol altered the level of E-cadherin and N-cadherin in a dose-dependent manner in vivo. Curcumol also regulated the secretion of protein markers in the serum that were associated with EMT and TGF-β1 in the 5–8F xenograft mouse model. Thus, the results indicated that Curcumol induced TGF-β1-mediated EMT arrest by regulating E-cadherin and N-cadherin, which may prevent further development of NPC.

The role of long noncoding RNA-LET in cell proliferation and invasion of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and its mechanism

LncRNA-LET, a recently identified long noncoding RNA, has been shown to act as a tumor suppressor; however, its biological function and mechanism have not been fully investigated. Our research found that there was less expression of LET in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tissues than normal tissues and that LET might inhibit proliferation, adhesion and invasion of NPC in vitro by enhancing its expression. By contrast, decreased LET expression could promote the proliferation, adhesion and invasion of NPC. In addition, the expression profiles of related genes and MAPK/ERK pathway were also regulated effectively via overexpression or silencing of LET. This result provides comprehensive evidence of LET’s antitumor effect on NPC in vitro, which might provide a new approach for clinical treatment.

HOPX functions as a tumour suppressor in head and neck cancer

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is generalized term that encompasses a diverse group of cancers that includes tumours of the oral cavity (OSCC), oropharynx (OPSCC) and nasopharynx (NPC). Genetic alterations that are common to all HNSCC types are likely to be important for squamous carcinogenesis. In this study, we have investigated the role of the homeodomain-only homeobox gene, HOPX, in the pathogenesis of HNSCC. We show that HOPX mRNA levels are reduced in OSCC and NPC cell lines and tissues and there is a general reduction of HOPX protein expression in these tumours and OPSCCs. HOPX promoter methylation was observed in a subset of HNSCCs and was associated with a worse overall survival in HPV negative tumours. RNAseq analysis of OSCC cells transfected with HOPX revealed a widespread deregulation of the transcription of genes related to epithelial homeostasis and ectopic over-expression of HOPX in OSCC and NPC cells inhibited cell proliferation, plating efficiency and migration, and enhanced sensitivity to UVA-induced apoptosis. Our results demonstrate that HOPX functions as a tumour suppressor in HNSCC and suggest a central role for HOPX in suppressing epithelial carcinogenesis.

Epstein-Barr virus mRNA profiles and viral DNA methylation status in nasopharyngeal brushings from nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients reflect tumor origin

Undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is 100% associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as oncogenic driver. NPC is often diagnosed late due to initial vague complaints and obscured location. Prior studies suggest that measurement of EBV DNA load and RNA transcripts in nasopharyngeal (NP) brushings is useful for minimally invasive NPC diagnosis. However, whether these EBV markers relate to local virus replication or reflect tumor origin remains to be demonstrated. To resolve this, we analysed EBV-DNA characteristics and quantified latent and lytic viral RNA transcripts in NP brushings and matching frozen NP-biopsy specimens from patients suspected of having NPC. We observed non-fragmented and Cp-promotor methylated EBV-DNA in both NP brushings and biopsies suggestive of tumor origin. Using quantitative RT-PCR we determined expression levels of 7 critical latent (EBER1, Qp-EBNA1, EBNA2, BART, LMP1, LMP2, BARF1) and 5 lytic (Zta, Rta, TK, PK and VCA-p18) RNA transcripts. Although latent and early lytic RNA transcripts were frequently detected in conjunction with high EBV viral load, in both brushings and biopsies the latent transcripts prevailed and reflected a typical NPC-associated latency-II transcription profile without EBNA2. Late lytic RNA transcripts were rare and detected at low levels mainly in NP brushings, suggestive of abortive viral reactivation rather than complete virus replication. EBV-IgA serology (EBNA1, VCA, Zta) did not correlate to the level of viral reactivation in situ. Overall, viral RNA profiling, DNA fragmentation and methylation analysis in NP brushings and parallel biopsies indicate that NP brush sampling provides a true and robust indicator of NPC tumor presence.

Overexpression of JAK2: a predictor of unfavorable prognosis for nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Purpose: Analysis of the nasopharyngeal carcinoma public transcriptome revealed JAK2 was significantly upregulated in tumors, which encouraged us to investigate its prognostic significance and mutational status. Materials & methods: We assessed the immune-expression of JAK2 and its relationships with various clinicopathological parameters. JAK2 mutation was detected by PCR followed by sequencing. Results: High expression of JAK2 was significantly associated with advanced tumor staging (p = 0.019). JAK2 overexpression acted as an independent predictor for worse disease-specific survival (p = 0.005), distant metastasis-free survival (p = 0.036), local recurrence-free survival (p = 0.012) and overall survival (p = 0.007). JAK2 mutation was not detected in selected cases with JAK2 protein overexpression. Conclusion: JAK2 can serve as a valuable negative prognostic factor and a potential therapeutic target.

The Epstein-Barr virus encoded LMP1 oncoprotein modulates cell adhesion via regulation of activin A/TGFβ and β1 integrin signalling

Approximately 20% of global cancer incidence is causally linked to an infectious agent. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) accounts for around 1% of all virus-associated cancers and is associated with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), the major oncoprotein encoded by EBV, behaves as a constitutively active tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor activating a variety of signalling pathways, including the three classic MAPKs (ERK-MAPK, p38 MAPK and JNK/SAPK). The present study identifies novel signalling properties for this integral membrane protein via the induction and secretion of activin A and TGFβ1, which are both required for LMP1’s ability to induce the expression of the extracellular matrix protein, fibronectin. However, it is evident that LMP1 is unable to activate the classic Smad-dependent TGFβ signalling pathway, but rather elicits its effects through the non-Smad arm of TGFβ signalling. In addition, there is a requirement for JNK/SAPK signalling in LMP1-mediated fibronectin induction. LMP1 also induces the expression and activation of the major fibronectin receptor, α5β1 integrin, an effect that is accompanied by increased focal adhesion formation and turnover. Taken together, these findings support the putative role for LMP1 in the pathogenesis of NPC by contributing to the metastatic potential of epithelial cells.

LMP1 Increases Expression of NADPH Oxidase (NOX) and Its Regulatory Subunit p22 in NP69 Nasopharyngeal Cells and Makes Them Sensitive to a Treatment by a NOX Inhibitor

Oxidative stress is thought to contribute to cancer development. Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) and its encoded oncoprotein, latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), are closely associated with the transformation of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and Burkitt’s lymphoma (BL). In this study, we used LMP1-transformed NP cells and EBV-related malignant cell lines to assess the effects of LMP1 on reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and glycolytic activity. Using NPC tissue samples and a tissue array to address clinical implications, we report that LMP1 activates NAD(P)H oxidases to generate excessive amount of ROS in EBV-related malignant diseases. By evaluating NAD(P)H oxidase (NOX) subunit expression, we found that the expression of the NAD(P)H oxidase regulatory subunit p22^phox was significantly upregulated upon LMP1-induced transformation. Furthermore, this upregulation was mediated by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. In addition, LMP1 markedly stimulated anaerobic glycolytic activity through the PI3K/Akt pathway. Additionally, in both NPC cells and tissue samples, p22^phox expression correlated with LMP1 expression. The NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) also exerted a marked cytotoxic effect in LMP1-transformed and malignant cells, providing a novel strategy for anticancer therapy.

Inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase expression enhances caspase-activated DNase expression and inhibits oxidative stress-induced chromosome breaks at the mixed lineage leukaemia gene in nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is commonly found in Asia, especially among the Chinese ethnic group. Chromosome rearrangements are common among NPC patients. Although the mechanism underlying the chromosome rearrangements in NPC is unclear, various mechanisms including activation of caspase-activated DNase (CAD) were proposed to contribute to chromosome rearrangements in leukaemia. Activation of CAD can be initiated by multiple agents, including oxidative stress, which is well implicated in carcinogenesis. CAD is the main enzyme that causes DNA fragmentation during apoptosis, and CAD is also implicated in promoting cell differentiation. In view of the role of oxidative stress in carcinogenesis and CAD activation, and since CAD was suggested to contribute to chromosome rearrangement in leukaemia, we hypothesise that oxidative stress-induced CAD activation could be one of the mechanisms that leads to chromosome rearrangements in NPC.

METHODS

SUNEI cells were treated with various concentrations of H2O2 for different period of time to ensure that cells undergo H2O2-induced MLL gene cleavage. Transfections with hCAD, mCAD, mutant hCAD, or cotransfection with hCAD and mICAD, and cotransfection with mutant hCAD and mICAD were performed. Gene expression was confirmed by Western blotting and MLL gene cleavage was assessed by inverse polymerase chain reaction (IPCR).

RESULTS

Treatment with H2O2 clearly induces cleavages within the MLL gene which locates at 11q23, a common deletion site in NPC. In order to investigate the role of CAD, CAD was overexpressed in SUNE1 cells, but that did not result in significant changes in H2O2-induced MLL gene cleavage. This could be because CAD requires ICAD for proper folding. Indeed, by overexpressing ICAD alone or co-expressing ICAD with CAD, Western blotting showed that CAD was expressed. In addition, ICAD overexpression also suppressed H2O2-induced MLL gene cleavage, suggesting a possible role of CAD in initiating chromosome cleavage during oxidative stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxidative stress mediated by H2O2 induces cleavage of the MLL gene, most likely via the caspase-activated DNase, CAD, and CAD expression requires ICAD. Since the MLL gene is located at 11q23, a common deletion site in NPC, thus stress-induced CAD activation may represent one of the mechanisms leading to chromosome rearrangement in NPC.

The prognostic impact of RAP2A expression in patients with early and locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma in an endemic area

BACKGROUND

By data mining from published transcriptomic databases, we identified RAP2A as a significantly upregulated gene in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tissues. RAP2A, a member of the RAS oncogene family, is involved in the process of GTP binding and GTPase activity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression of RAP2A and its prognostic impact in patients with early and locoregionally advanced NPC.

METHODS

RAP2A immunohistochemistry was performed for 124 NPC patients who were receiving standard treatment and had no initial distal metastasis. We also performed Western blotting to evaluate the endogenous protein expression of RAP2A in NPC cells and non-neoplastic mucosal cells. The result of RAP2A expression was further correlated with clinicopathological variables, disease-specific survival (DSS), distant metastasis-free survival (DMeFS), and local recurrence-free survival (LRFS).

RESULTS

High expression of RAP2A was significantly associated with advanced primary tumor status (P = 0.024) and advanced TNM stage (P = 0.006). In univariate analysis, high expression of RAP2A served as a significant prognostic factor for inferior DSS (P < 0.0001), DMeFS (P < 0.0001), and LRFS (P < 0.0001). In multivariate analysis, RAP2A overexpression still independently predicted worse DSS (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.976, P < 0.001), DMeFS (HR = 4.233, P < 0.001), and LRFS (HR = 4.156, P < 0.001). Moreover, Both HONE1 and TW01 NPC cells, but not non-neoplastic DOK cells demonstrated significantly increased RAP2A expression.

CONCLUSION

Overexpression of RAP2A is associated with advanced disease status and may therefore be an important prognosticator for poor outcomes in NPC, as well as a potential therapeutic target to aid in developing effective treatment modalities.

Omics-based identification of biomarkers for nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a head and neck cancer that is highly found in distinct geographic areas, such as Southeast Asia. The management of NPC remains burdensome as the prognosis is poor due to the late presentation of the disease and the complex nature of NPC pathogenesis. Therefore, it is necessary to find effective molecular markers for early detection and therapeutic measure of NPC. In this paper, the discovery of molecular biomarker for NPC through the emerging omics technologies including genomics, miRNA-omics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics will be extensively reviewed. These markers have been shown to play roles in various cellular pathways in NPC progression. The knowledge on their function will help us understand in more detail the complexity in tumor biology, leading to the better strategies for early detection, outcome prediction, detection of disease recurrence, and therapeutic approach.

Multiple oncogenic mutations related to targeted therapy in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

INTRODUCTION

An increasing number of targeted drugs have been tested for the treatment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). However, targeted therapy-related oncogenic mutations have not been fully evaluated. This study aimed to detect targeted therapy-related oncogenic mutations in NPC and to determine which targeted therapy might be potentially effective in treating NPC.

METHODS

By using the SNaPshot assay, a rapid detection method, 19 mutation hotspots in 6 targeted therapy-related oncogenes were examined in 70 NPC patients. The associations between oncogenic mutations and clinicopathologic factors were analyzed.

RESULTS

Among 70 patients, 12 (17.1%) had mutations in 5 oncogenes: 7 (10.0%) had v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KIT) mutation, 2 (2.8%) had epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutation, 1 (1.4%) had phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase, catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA) mutation, 1 (1.4%) had Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) mutation, and 1 (1.4%) had simultaneous EGFR and v-Raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B1 (BRAF) mutations. No significant differences were observed between oncogenic mutations and clinicopathologic characteristics. Additionally, these oncogenic mutations were not associated with tumor recurrence and metastasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Oncogenic mutations are present in NPC patients. The efficacy of targeted drugs on patients with the related oncogenic mutations requires further validation.

Prognostic Value of Molecular Markers and Implication for Molecular Targeted Therapies in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: An Update in an Era of New Targeted Molecules Development

The aim of the study was to evaluate the prognostic significance of molecular biomarkers which could provide information for more accurate prognostication and development of novel therapeutic strategies for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). NPC is a unique malignant epithelial carcinoma of head and neck region, with an intimate association with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Currently, the prediction of NPC prognosis is mainly based on the clinical TNM staging; however, NPC patients with the same clinical stage often present different clinical outcomes, suggesting that the TNM stage is insufficient to precisely predict the prognosis of this disease. In this review, we give an overview of the prognostic value of molecular markers in NPC and discuss potential strategies of targeted therapies for treatment of NPC. Molecular biomarkers, which play roles in abnormal proliferation signaling pathways (such as Wnt/β-catenin pathway), intracellular mitogenic signal aberration (such as hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α), receptor-mediated aberrations (such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)), tumor suppressors (such as p16 and p27 activity), cell cycle aberrations (such as cyclin D1 and cyclin E), cell adhesion aberrations (such as E-cadherin), apoptosis dysregualtion (such as survivin) and centromere aberration (centromere protein H), are prognostic markers for NPC. Plasma EBV DNA concentrations and EBV-encoded latent membrane proteins are also prognostic markers for NPC. Implication of molecular targeted therapies in NPC was discussed. Such therapies could have potential in combination with different cytotoxic agents to combat and eradicate tumor cells. In order to further improve overall survival for patients with loco-regionally advanced NPC, the development of innovative strategies, including prognostic molecular markers and molecular targeted agents is needed.

The genomic landscape of nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) has extremely skewed ethnic and geographic distributions, is poorly understood at the genetic level and is in need of effective therapeutic approaches. Here we determined the mutational landscape of 128 cases with NPC using whole-exome and targeted deep sequencing, as well as SNP array analysis. These approaches revealed a distinct mutational signature and nine significantly mutated genes, many of which have not been implicated previously in NPC. Notably, integrated analysis showed enrichment of genetic lesions affecting several important cellular processes and pathways, including chromatin modification, ERBB-PI3K signaling and autophagy machinery. Further functional studies suggested the biological relevance of these lesions to the NPC malignant phenotype. In addition, we uncovered a number of new druggable candidates because of their genomic alterations. Together our study provides a molecular basis for a comprehensive understanding of, and exploring new therapies for, NPC.

Oncogenic effects of WNT5A in Epstein-Barr virus‑associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma

The molecular events that drive the progression of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) are still to be elucidated. Here, we report for the first time the pathogenic significance of an NPC-associated gene, wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 5A (WNT5A) and the contribution of EBV to its expression. WNT5A is a representative Wnt protein that activates non-canonical Wnt signalling. With regard to its role in carcinogenesis, there is conflicting evidence as to whether WNT5A has a tumour-promoting or tumour-suppressive role. We show that WNT5A is upregulated in primary NPC tissue samples. We also demonstrate that WNT5A expression was dramatically increased in NPC cell lines expressing the EBV-encoded LMP2A gene, suggesting that this EBV-encoded latent gene is responsible for upregulating WNT5A in NPC. In addition, in vitro WNT5A overexpression promotes the proliferation, migration and invasion of NPC cells. Our results not only reveal pro-tumorigenic effects of WNT5A in NPC but also suggest that WNT5A could be an important therapeutic target in patients with EBV-associated disease.

Integrated mRNA and microRNA transcriptome sequencing characterizes sequence variants and mRNA-microRNA regulatory network in nasopharyngeal carcinoma model systems

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a prevalent malignancy in Southeast Asia among the Chinese population. Aberrant regulation of transcripts has been implicated in many types of cancers including NPC. Herein, we characterized mRNA and miRNA transcriptomes by RNA sequencing (RNASeq) of NPC model systems. Matched total mRNA and small RNA of undifferentiated Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)-positive NPC xenograft X666 and its derived cell line C666, well-differentiated NPC cell line HK1, and the immortalized nasopharyngeal epithelial cell line NP460 were sequenced by Solexa technology. We found 2812 genes and 149 miRNAs (human and EBV) to be differentially expressed in NP460, HK1, C666 and X666 with RNASeq; 533 miRNA–mRNA target pairs were inversely regulated in the three NPC cell lines compared to NP460. Integrated mRNA/miRNA expression profiling and pathway analysis show extracellular matrix organization, Beta-1 integrin cell surface interactions, and the PI3K/AKT, EGFR, ErbB, and Wnt pathways were potentially deregulated in NPC. Real-time quantitative PCR was performed on selected mRNA/miRNAs in order to validate their expression. Transcript sequence variants such as short insertions and deletions (INDEL), single nucleotide variant (SNV), and isomiRs were characterized in the NPC model systems. A novel TP53 transcript variant was identified in NP460, HK1, and C666. Detection of three previously reported novel EBV-encoded BART miRNAs and their isomiRs were also observed. Meta-analysis of a model system to a clinical system aids the choice of different cell lines in NPC studies. This comprehensive characterization of mRNA and miRNA transcriptomes in NPC cell lines and the xenograft provides insights on miRNA regulation of mRNA and valuable resources on transcript variation and regulation in NPC, which are potentially useful for mechanistic and preclinical studies.

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Using RNASeq we characterized the mRNA and miRNA transcriptomes in NPC and NP models.

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2812 Genes and 149 miRNAs (human and EBV) were differentially expressed in NPC vs NP models.

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533 miRNA–mRNA target pairs were inversely regulated in HK1, C666, and X666 vs NP460.

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ECM, β1 integrin, PI3K/AKT, EGFR, ErbB, and Wnt pathways appeared to be deregulated in NPC.

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A novel TP53 mutation was identified in NP460, HK1, and C666.

Epstein-Barr virus induction of the Hedgehog signalling pathway imposes a stem cell phenotype on human epithelial cells

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a cancer common in southern China and South East Asia that is causally linked to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. Here, we demonstrate that NPC displays frequent dysregulation of the Hedgehog (HH) pathway, a pathway implicated in the maintenance of stem cells, but whose aberrant activation in adult tissues can lead to cancer. Using authentic EBV-positive carcinoma-derived cell lines and nasopharyngeal epithelial cell lines latently infected with EBV as models for NPC in vitro, we show that EBV activates the HH signalling pathway through autocrine induction of SHH ligand. Moreover, we find that constitutive engagement of the HH pathway induces the expression of a number of stemness-associated genes and imposes stem-like characteristics on EBV-infected epithelial cells in vitro. Using epithelial cells expressing individual EBV latent genes detected in NPC, we show that EBNA1, LMP1, and LMP2A are all capable of inducing SHH ligand and activating the HH pathway, but only LMP1 and LMP2A are able to induce expression of stemness-associated marker genes. Our findings not only identify a role for dysregulated HH signalling in NPC oncogenesis, but also provide a novel rationale for therapeutic intervention.

Microtubule depolymerization activates the Epstein–Barr virus lytic cycle through protein kinase C pathways in nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells

Elevated levels of antibodies against Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) and the presence of viral DNA in plasma are reliable biomarkers for the diagnosis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) in high-prevalence areas, such as South-East Asia. The presence of these viral markers in the circulation suggests that a minimal level of virus reactivation may have occurred in an infected individual, although the underlying mechanism of reactivation remains to be elucidated. Here, we showed that treatment with nocodazole, which provokes the depolymerization of microtubules, induces the expression of two EBV lytic cycle proteins, Zta and EA-D, in EBV-positive NPC cells. This effect was independent of mitotic arrest, as viral reactivation was not abolished in cells synchronized at interphase. Notably, the induction of Zta by nocodazole was mediated by transcriptional upregulation via protein kinase C (PKC). Pre-treatment with inhibitors for PKC or its downstream signalling partners p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) abolished the nocodazole-mediated induction of Zta and EA-D. Interestingly, the effect of nocodazole, as well as colchicine and vinblastine, on lytic gene expression occurred only in NPC epithelial cells but not in cells derived from lymphocytes. These results establish a novel role of microtubule integrity in controlling the EBV life cycle through PKC and its downstream pathways, which represents a tissue-specific mechanism for controlling the life-cycle switch of EBV.

BamHI-A rightward frame 1, an Epstein-Barr virus-encoded oncogene and immune modulator

Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) causes several benign and malignant disorders of lymphoid and epithelial origin. EBV-related tumors display distinct patterns of viral latent gene expression, of which the BamHI-A rightward frame 1 (BARF1) is selectively expressed in carcinomas, regulated by cellular differentiation factors including ΔNp63α. BARF1 functions as a viral oncogene, immortalizing and transforming epithelial cells of different origin by acting as a mitogenic growth factor, inducing cyclin-D expression, and up-regulating antiapoptotic Bcl-2, stimulating host cell growth and survival. In addition, secreted hexameric BARF1 has immune evasive properties, functionally corrupting macrophage colony stimulating factor, as supported by recent functional and structural data. Therefore, BARF1, an intracellular and secreted protein, not only has multiple pathogenic functions but also can function as a target for immune responses. Deciphering the role of BARF1 in EBV biology will contribute to novel diagnostic and treatment options for EBV-driven carcinomas. Herein, we discuss recent insights on the regulation of BARF1 expression and aspects of structure-function relating to its oncogenic and immune suppressive properties. © 2013 The Authors. Reviews in Medical Virology published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Functional polymorphism in the 5'-UTR of CR2 is associated with susceptibility to nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a squamous cell cancer endemic in Southern China and Southeast Asia. It has been shown that inflammatory and immune responses during EBV infection contribute to the development of NPC. The complement receptor 2 (CR2) gene plays central roles during inflammatory and immune responses and, therefore, is a good candidate susceptibility gene for NPC. We performed PCR-based sequencing to identify multiple single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the exon regions of the CR2 gene in a Cantonese population. Two SNPs were screened in 528 NPC patients and 408 normal individuals to perform a case-control study matched according to age, gender and residence. Furthermore, we cloned the entire 5′-UTR and entire CR2 promoter into a luciferase report system and compared the luciferase activities between the different allelic constructs. A SNP in the 5′-UTR of CR2 (24 T/C, rs3813946) showed a significant association (P<0.01) with NPC in the Cantonese population studied. The subjects were categorized into 2 age groups: group 1, age ≤45 years and group 2, age >45 years. In group 1, the allelic frequencies of 24 T/C in the patients were significantly different from those of the controls (P=0.0034). The odds ratio (OR=1.81) also indicated a higher risk of NPC in individuals who carried the minor allele C. All constructs exerted allelic differences on luciferase activities, but only the susceptible allele +24C construct showed increased activity. Our findings implicate CR2 as a susceptibility gene for NPC and suggest that enhanced CR2 expression may be involved in the oncogenesis and development of NPC.

High expression of ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 2C (UBE2C) correlates with nasopharyngeal carcinoma progression

Background

Overexpression of ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 2C (UBE2C) has been detected in many types of human cancers, and is correlated with tumor malignancy. However, the role of UBE2C in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of aberrant UBE2C expression in the progression of human NPC.

Methods

Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to detect UBE2C protein in clinical samples of NPC and benign nasopharyngeal tissues, and the association of UBE2C expression with patient clinicopathological characteristics was analyzed. UBEC2 expression profiles were evaluated in cell lines representing varying differentiated stages of NPC and immortalized nasopharyngeal epithelia NP-69 cells using quantitative RT-PCR, western blotting and fluorescent staining. Furthermore, UBE2C was knocked down using RNA interference in these cell lines and proliferation and cell cycle distribution was investigated.

Results

Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that UBE2C protein expression levels were higher in NPC tissues than in benign nasopharyngeal tissues (P<0.001). Moreover, high UBE2C protein expression was positively correlated with tumor size (P=0.017), lymph node metastasis (P=0.016) and distant metastasis (P=0.015) in NPC patients. In vitro experiments demonstrated that UBE2C expression levels were inversely correlated with the degree of differentiation of NPC cell lines, whereas UBE2C displayed low level of expression in NP-69 cells. Knockdown of UBE2C led to significant arrest at the S and G2/M phases of the cell cycle, and decreased cell proliferation was observed in poorly-differentiated CNE2Z NPC cells and undifferentiated C666-1 cells, but not in well-differentiated CNE1 and immortalized NP-69 cells.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that high expression of UBE2C in human NPC is closely related to tumor malignancy, and may be a potential marker for NPC progression.