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Iseas S, Mariano G, Gros L, Baba-Hamed N, De Parades V, Adam J, Raymond E, Abba MC. Unraveling Emerging Anal Cancer Clinical Biomarkers from Current Immuno-Oncogenomics Advances. Mol Diagn Ther 2024; 28:201-214. [PMID: 38267771 PMCID: PMC10925578 DOI: 10.1007/s40291-023-00692-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Anal squamous cell carcinoma (ASCC) is a rare gastrointestinal malignancy associated with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) and is currently one of the fastest-growing causes of cancer incidence and mortality in developed countries. Although next-generation sequencing technologies (NGS) have revolutionized cancer and immuno-genomic research in various tumor types, a limited amount of clinical research has been developed to investigate the expression and the functional characterization of genomic data in ASCC. Herein, we comprehensively assess recent advancements in "omics" research, including a systematic analysis of genome-based studies, aiming to identify the most relevant ASCC cancer driver gene expressions and their associated signaling pathways. We also highlight the most significant biomarkers associated with anal cancer progression, gene expression of potential diagnostic biomarkers, expression of therapeutic drug targets, and emerging treatment opportunities. This review stresses the urgent need for developing target-specific therapies in ASCC. By illuminating the molecular characteristics and drug-target expression in ASCC, this study aims to provide insights for the development of precision medicine in anal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soledad Iseas
- Medical Oncology Department, Paris-St Joseph Hospital, 185 rue Raymond Losserand, 75014, Paris, France.
| | - Golubicki Mariano
- Oncology Unit, Gastroenterology Hospital "Dr. Carlos Bonorino Udaondo", Av. Caseros 2061, C1264, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Louis Gros
- Medical Oncology Department, Paris-St Joseph Hospital, 185 rue Raymond Losserand, 75014, Paris, France
| | - Nabil Baba-Hamed
- Medical Oncology Department, Paris-St Joseph Hospital, 185 rue Raymond Losserand, 75014, Paris, France
| | - Vincent De Parades
- Proctology Unit, Paris-St Joseph Hospital, 185 rue Raymond Losserand, 75014, Paris, France
| | - Julien Adam
- Pathology Department, Paris-St Joseph Hospital, 185 rue Raymond Losserand, 75014, Paris, France
| | - Eric Raymond
- Medical Oncology Department, Paris-St Joseph Hospital, 185 rue Raymond Losserand, 75014, Paris, France
| | - Martin Carlos Abba
- Basic and Applied Immunological Research Center (CINIBA), School of Medical Sciences, NationalUniversity of La Plata, Calle 60 y 120, C1900, La Plata, Argentina.
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2
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Siegel EM, Ajidahun A, Berglund A, Guerrero W, Eschrich S, Putney RM, Magliocco A, Riggs B, Winter K, Simko JP, Ajani JA, Guha C, Okawara GS, Abdalla I, Becker MJ, Pizzolato JF, Crane CH, Brown KD, Shibata D. Genome-wide host methylation profiling of anal and cervical carcinoma. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260857. [PMID: 34882728 PMCID: PMC8659695 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
HPV infection results in changes in host gene methylation which, in turn, are thought to contribute to the neoplastic progression of HPV-associated cancers. The objective of this study was to identify joint and disease-specific genome-wide methylation changes in anal and cervical cancer as well as changes in high-grade pre-neoplastic lesions. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) anal tissues (n = 143; 99% HPV+) and fresh frozen cervical tissues (n = 28; 100% HPV+) underwent microdissection, DNA extraction, HPV genotyping, bisulfite modification, DNA restoration (FFPE) and analysis by the Illumina HumanMethylation450 Array. Differentially methylated regions (DMR; t test q<0.01, 3 consecutive significant CpG probes and mean Δβ methylation value>0.3) were compared between normal and cancer specimens in partial least squares (PLS) models and then used to classify anal or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia-3 (AIN3/CIN3). In AC, an 84-gene PLS signature (355 significant probes) differentiated normal anal mucosa (NM; n = 9) from AC (n = 121) while a 36-gene PLS signature (173 significant probes) differentiated normal cervical epithelium (n = 10) from CC (n = 9). The CC progression signature was validated using three independent publicly available datasets (n = 424 cases). The AC and CC progression PLS signatures were interchangeable in segregating normal, AIN3/CIN3 and AC and CC and were found to include 17 common overlapping hypermethylated genes. Moreover, these signatures segregated AIN3/CIN3 lesions similarly into cancer-like and normal-like categories. Distinct methylation changes occur across the genome during the progression of AC and CC with overall similar profiles and add to the evidence suggesting that HPV-driven oncogenesis may result in similar non-random methylomic events. Our findings may lead to identification of potential epigenetic drivers of HPV-associated cancers and also, of potential markers to identify higher risk pre-cancerous lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M. Siegel
- Departments of Cancer Epidemiology, Tampa, FL, United States of America
| | - Abidemi Ajidahun
- Department of Surgery, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Anders Berglund
- Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Tampa, FL, United States of America
| | - Whitney Guerrero
- Department of Surgery, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Steven Eschrich
- Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Tampa, FL, United States of America
| | - Ryan M. Putney
- Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Tampa, FL, United States of America
| | - Anthony Magliocco
- Anatomic Pathology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL, United States of America
| | - Bridget Riggs
- Departments of Cancer Epidemiology, Tampa, FL, United States of America
| | - Kathryn Winter
- NRG Oncology Statistics and Data Management Center–ACR, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Jeff P. Simko
- UCSF Medical Center-Mount Zion, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Jaffer A. Ajani
- M D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Chandan Guha
- Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Gordon S. Okawara
- Juravinski Cancer Centre at Hamilton Health Sciences, Hamilton, ON, United States of America
| | - Ibrahim Abdalla
- Cancer Research for the Ozarks CCOP, Springfield, MO, United States of America
| | - Mark J. Becker
- Columbus Community Clinical Oncology Program, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | - Joseph F. Pizzolato
- Mount Sinai Comprehensive Cancer Center CCOP, Miami, FL, United States of America
| | | | - Kevin D. Brown
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - David Shibata
- Department of Surgery, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States of America
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3
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van der Zee RP, Richel O, van Noesel CJM, Ciocănea-Teodorescu I, van Splunter AP, Ter Braak TJ, Nathan M, Cuming T, Sheaff M, Kreuter A, Meijer CJLM, Quint WGV, de Vries HJC, Prins JM, Steenbergen RDM. Cancer Risk Stratification of Anal Intraepithelial Neoplasia in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Positive Men by Validated Methylation Markers Associated With Progression to Cancer. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72:2154-2163. [PMID: 32266940 PMCID: PMC8204787 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background High-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia (HGAIN; AIN2–3) is highly prevalent in HIV+ men, but only a minority of these lesions progress towards cancer. Currently, cancer progression risk cannot be established; therefore, no consensus exists on whether HGAIN should be treated. This study aimed to validate previously identified host cell DNA methylation markers for detection and cancer risk stratification of HGAIN. Methods A large independent cross-sectional series of 345 anal cancer, AIN3, AIN2, AIN1, and normal control biopsies of HIV+ men was tested for DNA methylation of 6 genes using quantitative methylation-specific PCR. We determined accuracy for detection of AIN3 and cancer (AIN3+) by univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis, followed by leave-one-out cross-validation. Methylation levels were assessed in a series of 10 anal cancer cases with preceding HGAIN at similar anatomic locations, and compared with the cross-sectional series. Results Methylation levels of all genes increased with increasing severity of disease (P < .05). HGAIN revealed a heterogeneous methylation pattern, with a subset resembling cancer. ZNF582 showed highest accuracy (AUC = 0.88) for AIN3+ detection, slightly improved by addition of ASCL1 and SST (AUC = 0.89), forming a marker panel. In the longitudinal series, HGAIN preceding cancer displayed high methylation levels similar to cancers. Conclusions We validated the accuracy of 5 methylation markers for the detection of anal (pre-) cancer. High methylation levels in HGAIN were associated with progression to cancer. These markers provide a promising tool to identify HGAIN in need of treatment, preventing overtreatment of HGAIN with a low cancer progression risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramon P van der Zee
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity (AI&II), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Dermatology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Olivier Richel
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Carel J M van Noesel
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Iuliana Ciocănea-Teodorescu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annina P van Splunter
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Timo J Ter Braak
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mayura Nathan
- Homerton Anal Neoplasia Service, Homerton University Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tamzin Cuming
- Homerton Anal Neoplasia Service, Homerton University Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Sheaff
- Department of Cellular Pathology, Barts Health National Health Service (NHS) Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Kreuter
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology, and Allergology, Helios St Elisabeth Hospital Oberhausen, University Witten/Herdecke, Oberhausen, Germany
| | - Chris J L M Meijer
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wim G V Quint
- DDL Diagnostic Laboratory, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Henry J C de Vries
- Department of Dermatology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Sexually Transmitted Infections Outpatient Clinic, Department of Infectious Diseases, Public Health Service of Amsterdam (GGD Amsterdam), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan M Prins
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity (AI&II), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Renske D M Steenbergen
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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4
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van der Zee RP, van Noesel CJM, Martin I, Ter Braak TJ, Heideman DAM, de Vries HJC, Prins JM, Steenbergen RDM. DNA methylation markers have universal prognostic value for anal cancer risk in HIV-negative and HIV-positive individuals. Mol Oncol 2021; 15:3024-3036. [PMID: 33580586 PMCID: PMC8564631 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Anal cancer has increasing incidence and is preceded by high‐grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia (HGAIN; AIN2–3). Previously, we identified and validated several methylation markers for accurate detection of anal cancer and HGAIN with cancer risk in HIV‐positive (HIV+) men who have sex with men (MSM). This study aimed to evaluate these markers in HIV‐negative risk groups. A cross‐sectional series of 176 tissue samples of anal cancer, AIN3, AIN2, AIN1 and control biopsies obtained in HIV‐negative women and men was tested for six methylation markers (ASCL1, LHX8, SST, WDR17, ZIC1 and ZNF582). Accuracy for detection of AIN3 and cancer (AIN3+) was determined by univariable and multivariable mixed‐effect ordinal logistic regression. Methylation levels of all markers increased with increasing severity of disease (P < 0.0001) and were comparable to results in HIV+ MSM. All markers showed high accuracy for AIN3+ detection [area under the curve (AUC): 0.83–0.86]. The optimal marker panel (ASCL1 and ZIC1; AUC = 0.85 for AIN3+) detected 98% of cancers at 79% specificity. In conclusion, DNA methylation markers show a high diagnostic performance for AIN3+ detection in HIV+ and HIV‐negative risk groups, justifying broad application of methylation analysis for anal cancer prevention programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramon P van der Zee
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Dermatology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Carel J M van Noesel
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne Martin
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Timo J Ter Braak
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daniëlle A M Heideman
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Henry J C de Vries
- Department of Dermatology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,STI Outpatient Clinic, Department of Infectious Diseases, Public Health Service of Amsterdam (GGD Amsterdam), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan M Prins
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Renske D M Steenbergen
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Lahiri CD, Nguyen ML, Mehta CC, Mosunjac M, Tadros T, Unger ER, Rajeevan MS, Richards J, Ofotokun I, Flowers L. Pilot Study of Markers for High-grade Anal Dysplasia in a Southern Cohort From the Women's Interagency Human Immunodeficiency Virus Study. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 70:1121-1128. [PMID: 31058984 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciz336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anal cancer rates have increased, particularly in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected (HIV+) women. We assessed factors associated with anal precancer in HIV+ and at-risk HIV-negative women from the Atlanta Women's Interagency HIV Study cohort. METHODS All participants underwent high-resolution anoscopy and anal cytology and had anal and cervical samples collected. Specimens were tested for 37 human papillomavirus (HPV) types and for FAM19A4 and microRNA124-2 promoter methylation. Binary logistic regression and multivariate analysis were conducted with histologic anal high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (A-HSIL) as the dependent variable. RESULTS Seventy-five women were enrolled: 52 (69%) were HIV+ with three-fourths having undetectable viral load; 64 (86%) were black; mean age was 49 ± 8 years. Forty-nine (65%) anal cytology samples were abnormal, and 38 (51%) of anal samples were positive for at least 1 of 13 high-risk HPV (hrHPV) types. Thirteen (18%) anal biopsies identified A-HSIL. Hypermethylation of FAM19A4 and/or microRNA124-2 was found in 69 (95%) anal samples and 19 (26%) cervical samples. In multivariate analyses, the odds of having A-HSIL were >6 times higher in women with anal hrHPV (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 6.08 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.27-29.18], P = .02) and with positive cervical methylation (aOR, 6.49 [95% CI, 1.66-25.35], P = .007), but not significantly higher in women with positive anal methylation. CONCLUSIONS Anal hrHPV and promoter hypermethylation in the cervix show promise as biomarkers for anal cancer screening in HIV+ and at-risk HIV-negative women. Greater understanding of gene silencing by promoter hypermethylation in anal carcinogenesis is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecile D Lahiri
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Georgia.,Atlanta Women's Interagency HIV Study, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Georgia
| | - Minh Ly Nguyen
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Georgia.,Atlanta Women's Interagency HIV Study, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Georgia
| | - C Christina Mehta
- Atlanta Women's Interagency HIV Study, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Georgia.,Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Georgia
| | - Marina Mosunjac
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Georgia
| | - Talaat Tadros
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Georgia
| | - Elizabeth R Unger
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Georgia
| | - Mangalathu S Rajeevan
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Georgia
| | - Jendai Richards
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Georgia
| | - Ighovwerha Ofotokun
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Georgia.,Atlanta Women's Interagency HIV Study, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Georgia
| | - Lisa Flowers
- Atlanta Women's Interagency HIV Study, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Georgia.,Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Georgia
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6
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Al-Eitan LN, Alghamdi MA, Tarkhan AH, Al-Qarqaz FA. Genome-wide identification of methylated CpG sites in nongenital cutaneous warts. BMC Med Genomics 2020; 13:100. [PMID: 32641122 PMCID: PMC7346436 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-020-00745-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low-risk HPV infection has not been the subject of epigenetic investigation. The present study was carried out in order to investigate the methylation status of CpG sites in non-genital cutaneous warts. METHODS Genomic DNA was extracted from 24 paired epidermal samples of warts and normal skin. DNA samples were bisulfite converted and underwent genome-wide methylation profiling using the Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChip Kit. RESULTS From a total of 844,234 CpG sites, 56,960 and 43,040 CpG sites were found to be hypo- and hypermethylated, respectively, in non-genital cutaneous warts. The most differentially methylated CpG sites in warts were located within the C10orf26, FAM83H-AS1, ZNF644, LINC00702, GSAP, STAT5A, HDAC4, NCALD, and EXOC4 genes. CONCLUSION Non-genital cutaneous warts exhibit a unique CpG methylation signature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laith N Al-Eitan
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, 22110, Jordan.
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, 22110, Jordan.
| | - Mansour A Alghamdi
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, King Khalid University, Abha, 61421, Saudi Arabia
- Genomics and Personalized Medicine Unit, College of Medicine, King Khalid University, Abha, 61421, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amneh H Tarkhan
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, 22110, Jordan
| | - Firas A Al-Qarqaz
- Department of Internal Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, 22110, Jordan
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Internal Medicine, King Abdullah University Hospital Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, 22110, Jordan
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7
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van der Zee RP, Richel O, van Noesel CJM, Novianti PW, Ciocanea-Teodorescu I, van Splunter AP, Duin S, van den Berk GEL, Meijer CJLM, Quint WGV, de Vries HJC, Prins JM, Steenbergen RDM. Host Cell Deoxyribonucleic Acid Methylation Markers for the Detection of High-grade Anal Intraepithelial Neoplasia and Anal Cancer. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 68:1110-1117. [PMID: 30060049 PMCID: PMC6424081 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background High-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN2/3; HGAIN) is highly prevalent in human immunodeficiency virus positive (HIV+) men who have sex with men (MSM), but only a minority will eventually progress to cancer. Currently, the cancer risk cannot be established, and therefore all HGAIN is treated, resulting in overtreatment. We assessed host cell deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) methylation markers for detecting HGAIN and anal cancer. Methods Tissue samples of HIV+ men with anal cancer (n = 26), AIN3 (n = 24), AIN2 (n = 42), AIN1 (n = 22) and HIV+ male controls (n = 34) were analyzed for methylation of 9 genes using quantitative methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction. Univariable and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator logistic regression, followed by leave-one-out cross-validation, were used to determine the performance for AIN3 and cancer detection. Results Methylation of all genes increased significantly with increasing severity of disease (P < 2 × 10-6). HGAIN samples revealed heterogeneous methylation patterns, with a subset resembling cancer. Four genes (ASCL1, SST, ZIC1,ZNF582) showed remarkable performance for AIN3 and anal cancer detection (area under the curve [AUC] > 0.85). ZNF582 (AUC = 0.89), detected all cancers and 54% of AIN3 at 93% specificity. Slightly better performance (AUC = 0.90) was obtained using a 5-marker panel. Conclusions DNA methylation is associated with anal carcinogenesis. A marker panel that includes ZNF582 identifies anal cancer and HGAIN with a cancer-like methylation pattern, warrantingvalidation studies to verify its potential for screening and management of HIV+ MSM at risk for anal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramon P van der Zee
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Dermatology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Olivier Richel
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Carel J M van Noesel
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Putri W Novianti
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Iuliana Ciocanea-Teodorescu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annina P van Splunter
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sylvia Duin
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Guido E L van den Berk
- Department of Internal Medicine, Onze Lieve Vrouwe Gasthuis (OLVG), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chris J L M Meijer
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wim G V Quint
- Delft Diagnostic Laboratory (DDL), Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Henry J C de Vries
- Department of Dermatology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Sexually Transmitted Infections Outpatient Clinic, Public Health Service of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan M Prins
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Renske D M Steenbergen
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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Rezapour S, Hosseinzadeh E, Marofi F, Hassanzadeh A. Epigenetic-based therapy for colorectal cancer: Prospect and involved mechanisms. J Cell Physiol 2019; 234:19366-19383. [PMID: 31020647 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.28658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetic modifications are heritable variations in gene expression not encoded by the DNA sequence. According to reports, a large number of studies have been performed to characterize epigenetic modification during normal development and also in cancer. Epigenetics can be regarded more widely to contain all of the changes in expression of genes that make by adjusted interactions between the regulatory portions of DNA or messenger RNAs that lead to indirect variation in the DNA sequence. In the last decade, epigenetic modification importance in colorectal cancer (CRC) pathogenesis was demonstrated powerfully. Although developments in CRC therapy have been made in the last years, much work is required as it remains the second leading cause of cancer death. Nowadays, epigenetic programs and genetic change have pivotal roles in the CRC incidence as well as progression. While our knowledge about epigenetic mechanism in CRC is not comprehensive, selective histone modifications and resultant chromatin conformation together with DNA methylation most likely regulate CRC pathogenesis that involved genes expression. Undoubtedly, the advanced understanding of epigenetic-based gene expression regulation in the CRC is essential to make epigenetic drugs for CRC therapy. The major aim of this review is to deliver a summary of valuable results that represent evidence of principle for epigenetic-based therapeutic approaches employment in CRC with a focus on the advantages of epigenetic-based therapy in the inhibition of the CRC metastasis and proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleheh Rezapour
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Elham Hosseinzadeh
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Faroogh Marofi
- Division of Hematology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ali Hassanzadeh
- Division of Hematology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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9
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Wasserman P, Rubin DS, Turett G. Review: Anal Intraepithelial Neoplasia in HIV-Infected Men Who Have Sex with Men: Is Screening and Treatment Justified? AIDS Patient Care STDS 2017; 31:245-253. [PMID: 28530494 DOI: 10.1089/apc.2017.0063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Anal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the fourth most prevalent cancer in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected men who have sex with men (MSM). Human papillomavirus (HPV) has been detected in over 90% of anal carcinoma biopsy specimens from MSM, and is considered a necessary, but alone, insufficient factor for carcinogenesis. Anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) may be precursive for SCC, and screening cytology with referral of persons with abnormality for high-resolution anoscopy-guided biopsy, and AIN treatment, has been recommended for prevention. In the absence of either randomized controlled trials or surveillance data demonstrating a reduction in anal SCC incidence, these recommendations were based on analogy with cervical cancer. HPV-mediated genetic changes associated with cervical cancer, and aneuploidy, have been documented in AIN. However, little data exist on the rate of AIN progression to SCC. The treatment of AIN is frequently prolonged and not curative, and if routinized in the care of HIV-infected MSM, would likely be recurring well into their sixth decade of life. Clinical trials demonstrating a reduction in invasive anal carcinoma incidence, as well as acceptable morbidity with repeated AIN destruction, are needed before asking our patients to commit to routine treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Wasserman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, New York-Presbyterian Queens, Flushing, New York
- Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
| | | | - Glenn Turett
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, New York-Presbyterian Queens, Flushing, New York
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Choudhury JH, Ghosh SK. Promoter Hypermethylation Profiling Identifies Subtypes of Head and Neck Cancer with Distinct Viral, Environmental, Genetic and Survival Characteristics. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129808. [PMID: 26098903 PMCID: PMC4476679 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epigenetic and genetic alteration plays a major role to the development of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Consumption of tobacco (smoking/chewing) and human papilloma virus (HPV) are also associated with an increase the risk of HNSCC. Promoter hypermethylation of the tumor suppression genes is related with transcriptional inactivation and loss of gene expression. We investigated epigenetic alteration (promoter methylation of tumor-related genes/loci) in tumor tissues in the context of genetic alteration, viral infection, and tobacco exposure and survival status. METHODOLOGY The study included 116 tissue samples (71 tumor and 45 normal tissues) from the Northeast Indian population. Methylation specific polymerase chain reaction (MSP) was used to determine the methylation status of 10 tumor-related genes/loci (p16, DAPK, RASSF1, BRAC1, GSTP1, ECAD, MLH1, MINT1, MINT2 and MINT31). Polymorphisms of CYP1A1, GST (M1 & T1), XRCC1and XRCC2 genes were studied by using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and multiplex-PCR respectively. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Unsupervised hierarchical clustering analysis based on methylation pattern had identified two tumor clusters, which significantly differ by CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP), tobacco, GSTM1, CYP1A1, HPV and survival status. Analyzing methylation of genes/loci individually, we have found significant higher methylation of DAPK, RASSF1, p16 and MINT31 genes (P = 0.031, 0.013, 0.031 and 0.015 respectively) in HPV (+) cases compared to HPV (-). Furthermore, a CIMP-high and Cluster-1 characteristic was also associated with poor survival. CONCLUSIONS Promoter methylation profiles reflecting a correlation with tobacco, HPV, survival status and genetic alteration and may act as a marker to determine subtypes and patient outcome in HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javed Hussain Choudhury
- Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology,Assam University, Silchar, Pin-788011, Assam, India
| | - Sankar Kumar Ghosh
- Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology,Assam University, Silchar, Pin-788011, Assam, India
- * E-mail:
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Siegel EM, Riggs BM, Delmas AL, Koch A, Hakam A, Brown KD. Quantitative DNA methylation analysis of candidate genes in cervical cancer. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0122495. [PMID: 25826459 PMCID: PMC4380427 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aberrant DNA methylation has been observed in cervical cancer; however, most studies have used non-quantitative approaches to measure DNA methylation. The objective of this study was to quantify methylation within a select panel of genes previously identified as targets for epigenetic silencing in cervical cancer and to identify genes with elevated methylation that can distinguish cancer from normal cervical tissues. We identified 49 women with invasive squamous cell cancer of the cervix and 22 women with normal cytology specimens. Bisulfite-modified genomic DNA was amplified and quantitative pyrosequencing completed for 10 genes (APC, CCNA, CDH1, CDH13, WIF1, TIMP3, DAPK1, RARB, FHIT, and SLIT2). A Methylation Index was calculated as the mean percent methylation across all CpG sites analyzed per gene (~4-9 CpG site) per sequence. A binary cut-point was defined at >15% methylation. Sensitivity, specificity and area under ROC curve (AUC) of methylation in individual genes or a panel was examined. The median methylation index was significantly higher in cases compared to controls in 8 genes, whereas there was no difference in median methylation for 2 genes. Compared to HPV and age, the combination of DNA methylation level of DAPK1, SLIT2, WIF1 and RARB with HPV and age significantly improved the AUC from 0.79 to 0.99 (95% CI: 0.97–1.00, p-value = 0.003). Pyrosequencing analysis confirmed that several genes are common targets for aberrant methylation in cervical cancer and DNA methylation level of four genes appears to increase specificity to identify cancer compared to HPV detection alone. Alterations in DNA methylation of specific genes in cervical cancers, such as DAPK1, RARB, WIF1, and SLIT2, may also occur early in cervical carcinogenesis and should be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M. Siegel
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Division of Population Sciences, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Bridget M. Riggs
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Division of Population Sciences, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, United States of America
| | - Amber L. Delmas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and UF-Shands Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, 1200 Newell Drive, Academic Research Building, R3-234, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States of America
| | - Abby Koch
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Division of Population Sciences, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, United States of America
| | - Ardeshir Hakam
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, United States of America
| | - Kevin D. Brown
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and UF-Shands Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, 1200 Newell Drive, Academic Research Building, R3-234, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States of America
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Association of HPV with genetic and epigenetic alterations in colorectal adenocarcinoma from Indian population. Tumour Biol 2015; 36:4661-70. [PMID: 25647260 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-015-3114-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Several studies from developing countries have shown human papillomavirus to be associated with colorectal cancers, but the molecular characteristics of such cancers are poorly known. We studied the various genetic variations like microsatellite instability (MSI), oncogenic mutations and epigenetic deregulations like CpG island methylation in HPV associated and nonassociated colorectal cancer patients from Indian population. HPV DNA was detected by PCR using My09/My11 and Gp5+/Gp6+ consensus primers and typed using HPV16 and HPV18 specific primers. MSI was detected using BAT 25 and BAT 26 markers, and mutation of KRAS, TP53 and BRAF V600E were detected by direct sequencing. Methyl specific polymerase chain reaction (MSP) was used to determine promoter methylation of the classical CIMP panel markers (P16, hMLH1, MINT1, MINT2 and MINT31) and other tumour-related genes (DAPK, RASSF1, BRCA1 and GSTP1). HPV DNA was detected in 34/93 (36.5 %) colorectal tumour tissues, HPV 18 being the predominant high-risk type. MSI was detected in 7.5 % cases; KRAS codon 12, 13, BRAF V600E and TP53 mutations were detected in 36.5, 3.2 and 37.6 % of the cases, respectively. CIMP-high was observed in 44.08 % cases. HPV presence was not associated with age, stage or grade of tumours, MSI or mutations in KRAS, TP53 or BRAF genes. Higher methylation frequencies of all genes/loci under study except RASSF1, as well as significantly higher CIMP-high characteristics were observed in HPV positive tumours as compared to negative cases. HPV in association with genetic and epigenetic features might be a potent risk factor for colorectal cancer in Indian population.
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Siegel EM, Eschrich S, Winter K, Riggs B, Berglund A, Ajidahun A, Simko J, Moughan J, Ajani J, Magliocco A, Elahi A, Hoffe S, Shibata D. Epigenomic characterization of locally advanced anal cancer: a radiation therapy oncology group 98-11 specimen study. Dis Colon Rectum 2014; 57:941-57. [PMID: 25003289 PMCID: PMC4100249 DOI: 10.1097/dcr.0000000000000160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 98-11 clinical trial demonstrated the superiority of standard 5-fluorouracil/mitomycin-C over 5-fluorouracil/cisplatin in combination with radiation in the treatment of anal squamous cell cancer. Tumor size (>5 cm) and lymph node metastases are associated with disease progression. There may be key molecular differences (eg, DNA methylation changes) in tumors at high risk for progression. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study were to determine whether there are differences in DNA methylation at individual CpG sites and within genes among locally advanced anal cancers, with large tumor size and/or nodal involvement, compared with those that are less advanced. DESIGN This was a case-case study among 121 patients defined as high risk (tumor size >5 cm and/or nodal involvement; n = 59) or low risk (≤5 cm, node negative; n = 62) within the mitomycin-C arm of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 98-11 trial. DNA methylation was measured using the Illumina HumanMethylation450 Array. SETTINGS The study was conducted in a tertiary care cancer center in collaboration with a national clinical trials cooperative group. PATIENTS The patients consisted of 74 women and 47 men with a median age of 54 years (range, 25-79 years). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES DNA methylation differences at individual CpG sites and within genes between low- and high-risk patients were compared using the Mann-Whitney test (p < 0.001). RESULTS A total of 16 CpG loci were differentially methylated (14 increased and 2 decreased) in high- versus low-risk cases. Genes harboring differentially methylated CpG sites included known tumor suppressor genes and novel targets. LIMITATIONS This study only included patients in the mitomycin-C arm with tumor tissue; however, this sample was representative of the trial. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to apply genome-wide methylation analysis to anal cancer. Biologically relevant differences in methylated targets were found to discriminate locally advanced from early anal cancer. Epigenetic events likely play a significant role in the progression of anal cancer and may serve as potential biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Siegel
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
| | - Steven Eschrich
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
| | - Kathryn Winter
- Department of Statistics, Radiation Therapy Oncology Group, Philadelphia, PA and San Francisco, CA
| | - Bridget Riggs
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
| | - Anders Berglund
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
| | - Abidemi Ajidahun
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
| | - Jeff Simko
- Department of Biospecimen Resource, Radiation Therapy Oncology Group, Philadelphia, PA and San Francisco, CA
| | - Jennifer Moughan
- Department of Statistics, Radiation Therapy Oncology Group, Philadelphia, PA and San Francisco, CA
| | - Jaffer Ajani
- Department of Medical Oncology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
| | | | - Abul Elahi
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
| | - Sarah Hoffe
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
| | - David Shibata
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL,Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL
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Zhao Z, Wu G, Wang J, Liu C, Qiu L. Next-generation sequencing-based transcriptome analysis of Helicoverpa armigera Larvae immune-primed with Photorhabdus luminescens TT01. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80146. [PMID: 24302999 PMCID: PMC3841171 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although invertebrates are incapable of adaptive immunity, immunal reactions which are functionally similar to the adaptive immunity of vertebrates have been described in many studies of invertebrates including insects. The phenomenon was termed immune priming. In order to understand the molecular mechanism of immune priming, we employed Illumina/Solexa platform to investigate the transcriptional changes of the hemocytes and fat body of Helicoverpa armigera larvae immune-primed with the pathogenic bacteria Photorhabdus luminescens TT01. A total of 43.6 and 65.1 million clean reads with 4.4 and 6.5 gigabase sequence data were obtained from the TT01 (the immune-primed) and PBS (non-primed) cDNA libraries and assembled into 35,707 all-unigenes (non-redundant transcripts), which has a length varied from 201 to 16,947 bp and a N50 length of 1,997 bp. For 35,707 all-unigenes, 20,438 were functionally annotated and 2,494 were differentially expressed after immune priming. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) are mainly related to immunity, detoxification, development and metabolism of the host insect. Analysis on the annotated immune related DEGs supported a hypothesis that we proposed previously: the immune priming phenomenon observed in H. armigera larvae was achieved by regulation of key innate immune elements. The transcriptome profiling data sets (especially the sequences of 1,022 unannotated DEGs) and the clues (such as those on immune-related signal and regulatory pathways) obtained from this study will facilitate immune-related novel gene discovery and provide valuable information for further exploring the molecular mechanism of immune priming of invertebrates. All these will increase our understanding of invertebrate immunity which may provide new approaches to control insect pests or prevent epidemic of infectious diseases in economic invertebrates in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zengyang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Gongqing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chunlin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lihong Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Human papilllomaviruses (HPVs) are common human pathogens that infect cutaneous or mucosal epithelia in which they cause warts, self-contained benign lesions that commonly regress. The HPV life cycle is intricately tied to the differentiation of the host epithelium it infects. Mucosotropic HPVs are the most common sexually transmitted pathogen known to mankind. A subset of the mucosotropic HPVs, so-called high risk HPVs, is etiologically associated with numerous cancers of the anogenital tract, most notably the cervix, as well as a growing fraction of head and neck cancers. In these cancers, the HPV genome, which normally exists an a double stranded, circular, nuclear plasmid, is commonly found integrated into the host genome and expresses two viral oncogenes, E6 and E7, that are implicated in the development and maintainance of the cancers caused by these high risk HPVs. Numerous studies, primarily on the high risk HPV16, have documented that the methylation status of the viral genome changes not only in the context of the viral life cycle but also in the context of the progressive neoplastic disease that culminates in cancer. In this article, we summarize the knowledge gained from those studies. We also provide the first analysis of available ChIP-seq data on the occupancy of both epigentically modified histones as well as transcription factors on the high risk HPV18 genome in the context of HeLa cells, a cervical cancer-derived cell line that has been the subject of extensive analyses using this technique.
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