The baboon kidney transcriptome: analysis of transcript sequence, splice variants, and abundance

Maternal under-nutrition during pregnancy alters the molecular response to over-nutrition in multiple organs and tissues in nonhuman primate juvenile offspring

Previous studies in rodents suggest that mismatch between fetal and postnatal nutrition predisposes individuals to metabolic diseases. We hypothesized that in nonhuman primates (NHP), fetal programming of maternal undernutrition (MUN) persists postnatally with a dietary mismatch altering metabolic molecular systems that precede standard clinical measures. We used unbiased molecular approaches to examine response to a high fat, high-carbohydrate diet plus sugar drink (HFCS) challenge in NHP juvenile offspring of MUN pregnancies compared with controls (CON). Pregnant baboons were fed ad libitum (CON) or 30% calorie reduction from 0.16 gestation through lactation; weaned offspring were fed chow ad libitum. MUN offspring were growth restricted at birth. Liver, omental fat, and skeletal muscle gene expression, and liver glycogen, muscle mitochondria, and fat cell size were quantified. Before challenge, MUN offspring had lower body mass index (BMI) and liver glycogen, and consumed more sugar drink than CON. After HFCS challenge, MUN and CON BMIs were similar. Molecular analyses showed HFCS response differences between CON and MUN for muscle and liver, including hepatic splicing and unfolded protein response. Altered liver signaling pathways and glycogen content between MUN and CON at baseline indicate in utero programming persists in MUN juveniles. MUN catchup growth during consumption of HFCS suggests increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Greater sugar drink consumption in MUN demonstrates altered appetitive drive due to programming. Differences in blood leptin, liver glycogen, and tissue-specific molecular response to HFCS suggest MUN significantly impacts juvenile offspring ability to manage an energy rich diet.

Integrated multi-omics analysis of brain aging in female nonhuman primates reveals altered signaling pathways relevant to age-related disorders

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been implicated as a key brain region responsible for age-related cognitive decline. Little is known about aging-related molecular changes in PFC that may mediate these effects. To date, no studies have used untargeted discovery methods with integrated analyses to determine PFC molecular changes in healthy female primates. We quantified PFC changes associated with healthy aging in female baboons by integrating multiple omics data types (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) from samples across the adult age span. Our integrated omics approach using unbiased weighted gene co-expression network analysis to integrate data and treat age as a continuous variable, revealed highly interconnected known and novel pathways associated with PFC aging. We found Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) tissue content associated with these signaling pathways, providing 1 potential biomarker to assess PFC changes with age. These highly coordinated pathway changes during aging may represent early steps for aging-related decline in PFC functions, such as learning and memory, and provide potential biomarkers to assess cognitive status in humans.

Cell-type deconvolution of bulk RNA-Seq from kidney using opensource bioinformatic tools

Traditional bulk RNA-Seq pipelines do not assess cell-type composition within heterogeneous tissues. Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether conflicting findings among samples or datasets are the result of biological differences or technical differences due to variation in sample collections. This report provides a user-friendly, open source method to assess cell-type composition in bulk RNA-Seq datasets for heterogeneous tissues using published single cell (sc)RNA-Seq data as a reference. As an example, we apply the method to analysis of kidney cortex bulk RNA-Seq data from female (N=8) and male (N=9) baboons to assess whether observed transcriptome sex differences are biological or technical, i.e., variation due to ultrasound guided biopsy collections. We found cell-type composition was not statistically different in female versus male transcriptomes based on expression of 274 kidney cell-type specific transcripts, indicating differences in gene expression are not due to sampling differences. This method of cell-type composition analysis is recommended for providing rigor in analysis of bulk RNA-Seq datasets from complex tissues. It is clear that with reduced costs, more analyses will be done using scRNA-Seq; however, the approach described here is relevant for data mining and meta analyses of the thousands of bulk RNA-Seq data archived in the NCBI GEO public database.

Postnatal persistence of nonhuman primate sex-dependent renal structural and molecular changes programmed by intrauterine growth restriction

BACKGROUND

Poor nutrition during fetal development programs postnatal kidney function. Understanding postnatal consequences in nonhuman primates (NHP) is important for translation to our understanding the impact on human kidney function and disease risk. We hypothesized that intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) in NHP persists postnatally, with potential molecular mechanisms revealed by Western-type diet challenge.

METHODS

IUGR juvenile baboons were fed a 7-week Western diet, with kidney biopsies, blood, and urine collected before and after challenge. Transcriptomics and metabolomics were used to analyze biosamples.

RESULTS

Pre-challenge IUGR kidney transcriptome and urine metabolome differed from controls. Post-challenge, sex and diet-specific responses in urine metabolite and renal signaling pathways were observed. Dysregulated mTOR signaling persisted postnatally in female pre-challenge. Post-challenge IUGR male response showed uncoordinated signaling suggesting proximal tubule injury.

CONCLUSION

Fetal undernutrition impacts juvenile offspring kidneys at the molecular level suggesting early-onset blood pressure dysregulation.

Blood pressure and the kidney cortex transcriptome response to high-sodium diet challenge in female nonhuman primates

Blood pressure (BP) is influenced by genetic variation and sodium intake with sex-specific differences; however, studies to identify renal molecular mechanisms underlying the influence of sodium intake on BP in nonhuman primates (NHP) have focused on males. To address the gap in our understanding of molecular mechanisms regulating BP in female primates, we studied sodium-naïve female baboons (n = 7) fed a high-sodium (HS) diet for 6 wk. We hypothesized that in female baboons variation in renal transcriptional networks correlates with variation in BP response to a high-sodium diet. BP was continuously measured for 64-h periods throughout the study by implantable telemetry devices. Sodium intake, blood samples for clinical chemistries, and ultrasound-guided kidney biopsies were collected before and after the HS diet for RNA-Seq and bioinformatic analyses. We found that on the LS diet but not the HS diet, sodium intake and serum 17 β-estradiol concentration correlated with BP. Furthermore, kidney transcriptomes differed by diet-unbiased weighted gene coexpression network analysis revealed modules of genes correlated with BP on the HS diet but not the LS diet. Our results showed variation in BP on the HS diet correlated with variation in novel kidney gene networks regulated by ESR1 and MYC; i.e., these regulators have not been associated with BP regulation in male humans or rodents. Validation of the mechanisms underlying regulation of BP-associated gene networks in female NHP will inform better therapies toward greater precision medicine for women.

Hepatic transcript signatures predict atherosclerotic lesion burden prior to a 2-year high cholesterol, high fat diet challenge

The purpose of this study was to identify molecular mechanisms by which the liver influences total lesion burden in a nonhuman primate model (NHP) of cardiovascular disease with acute and chronic feeding of a high cholesterol, high fat (HCHF) diet. Baboons (47 females, 64 males) were fed a HCHF diet for 2 years (y); liver biopsies were collected at baseline, 7 weeks (w) and 2y, and lesions were quantified in aortic arch, descending aorta, and common iliac at 2y. Unbiased weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed several modules of hepatic genes correlated with lesions at different time points of dietary challenge. Pathway and network analyses were performed to study the roles of hepatic module genes. More significant pathways were observed in males than females. In males, we found modules enriched for genes in oxidative phosphorylation at baseline, opioid signaling at 7w, and EIF2 signaling and HNF1A and HNF4A networks at baseline and 2y. One module enriched for fatty acid β oxidation pathway genes was found in males and females at 2y. To our knowledge, this is the first study of a large NHP cohort to identify hepatic genes that correlate with lesion burden. Correlations of baseline and 7w module genes with lesions at 2y were observed in males but not in females. Pathway analyses of baseline and 7w module genes indicate EIF2 signaling, oxidative phosphorylation, and μ-opioid signaling are possible mechanisms that predict lesion formation induced by HCHF diet consumption in males. Our findings of coordinated hepatic transcriptional response in male baboons but not female baboons indicate underlying molecular mechanisms differ between female and male primate atherosclerosis.

Circulating miRNAs associated with bone mineral density in healthy adult baboons

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally and circulate in the blood, making them attractive biomarkers of disease state for tissues like bone that are challenging to interrogate directly. Here, we report on five miRNAs-miR-197-3p, miR-320a, miR-320b, miR-331-5p, and miR-423-5p-associated with bone mineral density (BMD) in 147 healthy adult baboons. These baboons ranged in age from 15 to 25 years (45-75 human equivalent years) and 65% were female with a broad range of BMD values including a minority of osteopenic animals. miRNAs were generated via RNA sequencing from buffy coats collected at necropsy and areal BMD (aBMD) measured postmortem via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) of the lumbar vertebrae. Differential expression analysis controlled for the underlying pedigree structure of these animals to account for genetic variation which may drive miRNA abundance and aBMD values. While many of these miRNAs have been associated with the risk of osteoporosis in humans, this finding is of interest because the cohort represents a model of normal aging and bone metabolism rather than a disease cohort. The replication of miRNA associations with osteoporosis or other bone metabolic disorders in animals with healthy aBMD suggests an overlap in normal variation and disease states. We suggest that these miRNAs are involved in the regulation of cellular proliferation, apoptosis, and protein composition in the extracellular matrix throughout life; and age-related dysregulation of these systems may lead to disease. These miRNAs may be early indicators of progression to disease in advance of clinically detectible osteoporosis.

Integrated omics analysis reveals sirtuin signaling is central to hepatic response to a high fructose diet

BACKGROUND

Dietary high fructose (HFr) is a known metabolic disruptor contributing to development of obesity and diabetes in Western societies. Initial molecular changes from exposure to HFr on liver metabolism may be essential to understand the perturbations leading to insulin resistance and abnormalities in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. We studied vervet monkeys (Clorocebus aethiops sabaeus) fed a HFr (n=5) or chow diet (n=5) for 6 weeks, and obtained clinical measures of liver function, blood insulin, cholesterol and triglycerides. In addition, we performed untargeted global transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics analyses on liver biopsies to determine the molecular impact of a HFr diet on coordinated pathways and networks that differed by diet.

RESULTS

We show that integration of omics data sets improved statistical significance for some pathways and networks, and decreased significance for others, suggesting that multiple omics datasets enhance confidence in relevant pathway and network identification. Specifically, we found that sirtuin signaling and a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARA) regulatory network were significantly altered in hepatic response to HFr. Integration of metabolomics and miRNAs data further strengthened our findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Our integrated analysis of three types of omics data with pathway and regulatory network analysis demonstrates the usefulness of this approach for discovery of molecular networks central to a biological response. In addition, metabolites aspartic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), protein ATG3, and genes ATG7, and HMGCS2 link sirtuin signaling and the PPARA network suggesting molecular mechanisms for altered hepatic gluconeogenesis from consumption of a HFr diet.

Skeletal muscle extracellular matrix remodeling with worsening glycemic control in nonhuman primates

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) development may be mediated by skeletal muscle (SkM) function, which is responsible for >80% of circulating glucose uptake. The goals of this study were to assess changes in global- and location-level gene expression, remodeling proteins, fibrosis, and vascularity of SkM with worsening glycemic control, through RNA sequencing, immunoblotting, and immunostaining. We evaluated SkM samples from health-diverse African green monkeys (Cholorcebus aethiops sabaeus) to investigate these relationships. We assessed SkM remodeling at the molecular level by evaluating unbiased transcriptomics in age-, sex-, weight-, and waist circumference-matched metabolically healthy, prediabetic (PreT2D) and T2D monkeys (n = 13). Our analysis applied novel location-specific gene differences and shows that extracellular facing and cell membrane-associated genes and proteins are highly upregulated in metabolic disease. We verified transcript patterns using immunohistochemical staining and protein analyses of matrix metalloproteinase 16 (MMP16), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP2), and VEGF. Extracellular matrix (ECM) functions to support intercellular communications, including the coupling of capillaries to muscle cells, which was worsened with increasing blood glucose. Multiple regression modeling from age- and health-diverse monkeys (n = 33) revealed that capillary density was negatively predicted by only fasting blood glucose. The loss of vascularity in SkM co-occurred with reduced expression of hypoxia-sensing genes, which is indicative of a disconnect between altered ECM and reduced endothelial cells, and known perfusion deficiencies present in PreT2D and T2D. This report supports that rising blood glucose values incite ECM remodeling and reduce SkM capillarization, and that targeting ECM would be a rational approach to improve health with metabolic disease.

Identification of coordinately regulated microRNA-gene networks that differ in baboons discordant for LDL-cholesterol

RATIONALE

Plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (plasma LDL-C), vascular endothelial cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), particularly monocytes, play key roles in initiating atherosclerosis, the primary cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although the mechanisms underlying development of atherosclerosis are not well understood, LDL-C is known to influence expression of endothelial microRNAs (miRNAs) and gene-targets of miRNAs to promote cell senescence. However, the impact of LDL-C on expression of PBMC miRNAs and miRNA targeted genes in response to an atherogenic diet is not known. In this study, we used unbiased methods to identify coordinately responsive PBMC miRNA- gene networks that differ between low and high LDL-C baboons when fed a high-cholesterol, high-fat (HCHF) diet.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Using RNA Seq, we quantified PBMC mRNAs and miRNAs from half-sib baboons discordant for LDL-C plasma concentrations (low LDL-C, n = 3; high LDL-C, n = 3) before and after a 7-week HCHF diet challenge. For low LDL-C baboons, 626 genes exhibited significant change in expression (255 down-regulated, 371 up-regulated) in response to the HCHF diet, and for high LDL-C baboons 379 genes exhibited significant change in expression (162 down-regulated, 217 up-regulated) in response to the HCHF diet. We identified 494 miRNAs identical to human miRNAs and 47 novel miRNAs. Fifty miRNAs were differentially expressed in low LDL-C baboons (21 up- and 29 down-regulated) and 20 in high LDL-C baboons (11 up- and 9 down-regulated) in response to the HCHF diet. Among the differentially expressed miRNAs were miR-221/222 and miR-34a-3p, which were down-regulated, and miR-148a/b-5p, which was up-regulated. In addition, gene-targets of these miRNAs, VEGFA, MAML3, SPARC, and DMGDH, were inversely expressed and are central hub genes in networks and signaling pathways that differ between low and high LDL-C baboon HCHF diet response.

CONCLUSIONS

We have identified coordinately regulated HCHF diet-responsive PBMC miRNA-gene networks that differ between baboons discordant for LDL-C concentrations. Our findings provide potential insights into molecular mechanisms underlying initiation of atherosclerosis where LDL-C concentrations influence expression of specific miRNAs, which in turn regulate expression of genes that play roles in initiation of lesions.

De novo transcriptomic analysis and development of EST-SSR markers in the Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica)

The Siberian tiger, Panthera tigris altaica, is an endangered species, and much more work is needed to protect this species, which is still vulnerable to extinction. Conservation efforts may be supported by the genetic assessment of wild populations, for which highly specific microsatellite markers are required. However, only a limited amount of genetic sequence data is available for this species. To identify the genes involved in the lung transcriptome and to develop additional simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers for the Siberian tiger, we used high-throughput RNA-Seq to characterize the Siberian tiger transcriptome in lung tissue (designated 'PTA-lung') and a pooled tissue sample (designated 'PTA'). Approximately 47.5 % (33,187/69,836) of the lung transcriptome was annotated in four public databases (Nr, Swiss-Prot, KEGG, and COG). The annotated genes formed a potential pool for gene identification in the tiger. An analysis of the genes differentially expressed in the PTA lung, and PTA samples revealed that the tiger may have suffered a series of diseases before death. In total, 1062 non-redundant SSRs were identified in the Siberian tiger transcriptome. Forty-three primer pairs were randomly selected for amplification reactions, and 26 of the 43 pairs were also used to evaluate the levels of genetic polymorphism. Fourteen primer pairs (32.56 %) amplified products that were polymorphic in size in P. tigris altaica. In conclusion, the transcriptome sequences will provide a valuable genomic resource for genetic research, and these new SSR markers comprise a reasonable number of loci for the genetic analysis of wild and captive populations of P. tigris altaica.

Myosin 1b Regulates Amino Acid Transport by Associating Transporters with the Apical Plasma Membrane of Kidney Cells

Amino acid transporters (AATers) in the brush border of the apical plasma membrane (APM) of renal proximal tubule (PT) cells mediate amino acid transport (AAT). We found that the membrane-associated class I myosin myosin 1b (Myo1b) localized at the apical brush border membrane of PTs. In opossum kidney (OK) 3B/2 epithelial cells, which are derived from PTs, expressed rat Myo1b-GFP colocalized in patched microvilli with expressed mouse V5-tagged SIT1 (SIT1-V5), which mediates neutral amino acid transport in OK cells. Lentivirus-mediated delivery of opossum Myo1b-specific shRNA resulted in knockdown (kd) of Myo1b expression, less SIT1-V5 at the APM as determined by localization studies, and a decrease in neutral AAT as determined by radioactive uptake assays. Myo1b kd had no effect on Pi transport or noticeable change in microvilli structure as determined by rhodamine phalloidin staining. The studies are the first to define a physiological role for Myo1b, that of regulating renal AAT by modulating the association of AATers with the APM.

Characterization of the kidney transcriptome of the long-haired mouse Abrothrix hirta (Rodentia, Sigmodontinae) and comparison with that of the olive mouse A. olivacea

To understand how small mammals cope with the challenge of water homeostasis is a matter of interest for ecologists and evolutionary biologists. Here we take a step towards the understanding of the transcriptomic functional response of kidney using as a model the long-haired mouse (Abrothrix hirta) a species that distributes across Patagonian steppes and Austral temperate rainforests in Argentina and Chile. Specifically, we i) characterize the renal transcriptome of A. hirta, and ii) compare it with that-already available-of the co-generic and co-distributed A. olivacea. Renal mRNA transcripts from 16 specimens of A. hirta from natural populations were analyzed. Over 500 million Illumina paired-end reads were assembled de novo under two approaches, an individual assembly for each specimen, and a single in-silico normalized joint assembly including all reads from all specimens. The total number of annotated genes was similar with both strategies: an average of 14,956 in individual assemblies and 14,410 in the joint assembly. Overall, 15,463 distinct genes express in the kidney of A. hirta. Transcriptomes of A. hirta and A. olivacea were similar in terms of gene abundance and composition: 95.6% of the genes of A. hirta were also found in A. olivacea making their functional profiles also similar. However, differences in the transcriptome of these two species were observed in the set of highly expressed genes, in terms of private genes for each species and the functional profiles of highly expressed genes. As part of the novel transcriptome characterization, we provide distinct gene lists with their functional annotation that would constitute the basis for further research on these or any other species of the subfamily Sigmodontinae, which includes about 400 living species distributed from Tierra del Fuego to southern United States.

Baboons as a model to study genetics and epigenetics of human disease

A major challenge for understanding susceptibility to common human diseases is determining genetic and environmental factors that influence mechanisms underlying variation in disease-related traits. The most common diseases afflicting the US population are complex diseases that develop as a result of defects in multiple genetically controlled systems in response to environmental challenges. Unraveling the etiology of these diseases is exceedingly difficult because of the many genetic and environmental factors involved. Studies of complex disease genetics in humans are challenging because it is not possible to control pedigree structure and often not practical to control environmental conditions over an extended period of time. Furthermore, access to tissues relevant to many diseases from healthy individuals is quite limited. The baboon is a well-established research model for the study of a wide array of common complex diseases, including dyslipidemia, hypertension, obesity, and osteoporosis. It is possible to acquire tissues from healthy, genetically characterized baboons that have been exposed to defined environmental stimuli. In this review, we describe the genetic and physiologic similarity of baboons with humans, the ability and usefulness of controlling environment and breeding, and current genetic and genomic resources. We discuss studies on genetics of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and intrauterine growth restriction using the baboon as a model for human disease. We also summarize new studies and resources under development, providing examples of potential translational studies for targeted interventions and therapies for human disease.

Characterization of the kidney transcriptome of the South American olive mouse Abrothrix olivacea

BACKGROUND

The olive mouse Abrothrix olivacea is a cricetid rodent of the subfamily Sigmodontinae that inhabits a wide range of contrasting environments in southern South America, from aridlands to temperate rainforests. Along its distribution, it presents different geographic forms that make the olive mouse a good focal case for the study of geographical variation in response to environmental variation. We chose to characterize the kidney transcriptome because this organ has been shown to be associated with multiple physiological processes, including water reabsorption.

RESULTS

Transcriptomes of thirteen kidneys from individuals from Argentina and Chile were sequenced using Illumina technology in order to obtain a kidney reference transcriptome. After combining the reads produced for each sample, we explored three assembly strategies to obtain the best reconstruction of transcripts, TrinityNorm and DigiNorm, which include its own normalization algorithms for redundant reads removal, and Multireads, which simply consist on the assembly of the joined reads. We found that Multireads strategy produces a less fragmented assembly than normalization algorithms but recovers fewer number of genes. In general, about 15000 genes were annotated, of which almost half had at least one coding sequence reconstructed at 99% of its length. We also built a list of highly expressed genes, of which several are involved in water conservation under laboratory conditions using mouse models.

CONCLUSION

Based on our assembly results, Trinity's in silico normalization is the best algorithm in terms of cost-benefit returns; however, our results also indicate that normalization should be avoided if complete or nearly complete coding sequences of genes are desired. Given that this work is the first to characterize the transcriptome of any member of Sigmodontinae, a subfamily of cricetid rodents with about 400 living species, it will provide valuable resources for future ecological and evolutionary genomic analyses.