Interindividual differences in mid-adolescents in error monitoring and post-error adjustment

Error-signaling in the developing brain

While learning from mistakes is a lifelong process, the rate at which an individual makes errors on any given task decreases through late adolescence. Previous fMRI adult work indicates that several control brain networks are reliably active when participants make errors across multiple tasks. Less is known about the consistency and localization of error processing in the child brain because previous research has used single tasks. The current analysis pooled data across three studies to examine error-related task activation (two tasks per study, three tasks in total) for a group of 232 children aged 8-17 years. We found that, consistent with the adult literature, the majority of applied cingulo-opercular brain regions, including medial superior frontal cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate, and bilateral anterior insula, showed consistent error processing engagement in children across multiple tasks. Error-related activity in many of these cingulo-opercular regions correlated with task performance. However, unlike in the adult literature, we found a lack of error-related activation across tasks in dorsolateral frontal areas, and we also did not find any task-consistent relations with age in these regions. Our findings suggest that the task-general error processing signal in the developing brain is fairly robust and similar to adults, with the exception of lateral frontal cortex.

Common and distinct neural correlates of dual-tasking and task-switching: a meta-analytic review and a neuro-cognitive processing model of human multitasking

Although there are well-known limitations of the human cognitive system in performing two tasks simultaneously (dual-tasking) or alternatingly (task-switching), the question for a common vs. distinct neural basis of these multitasking limitations is still open. We performed two Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analyses of neuroimaging studies on dual-tasking or task-switching and tested for commonalities and differences in the brain regions associated with either domain. We found a common core network related to multitasking comprising bilateral intraparietal sulcus (IPS), left dorsal premotor cortex (dPMC), and right anterior insula. Meta-analytic contrasts revealed eight fronto-parietal clusters more consistently activated in dual-tasking (bilateral frontal operculum, dPMC, and anterior IPS, left inferior frontal sulcus and left inferior frontal gyrus) and, conversely, four clusters (left inferior frontal junction, posterior IPS, and precuneus as well as frontomedial cortex) more consistently activated in task-switching. Together with sub-analyses of preparation effects in task-switching, our results argue against purely passive structural processing limitations in multitasking. Based on these findings and drawing on current theorizing, we present a neuro-cognitive processing model of multitasking.

Addressing the reliability fallacy in fMRI: Similar group effects may arise from unreliable individual effects

To cast valid predictions of future behavior or diagnose disorders, the reliable measurement of a "biomarker" such as the brain activation to prospective reward is a prerequisite. Surprisingly, only a small fraction of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies report or cite the reliability of brain activation maps involved in group analyses. Here, using simulations and exemplary longitudinal data of 126 healthy adolescents performing an intertemporal choice task, we demonstrate that reproducing a group activation map over time is not a sufficient indication of reliable measurements at the individual level. Instead, selecting regions based on significant main effects at the group level may yield estimates that fail to reliably capture individual variance in the subjective evaluation of an offer. Collectively, our results call for more attention on the reliability of supposed biomarkers at the level of the individual. Thus, caution is warranted in employing brain activation patterns prematurely for clinical applications such as diagnosis or tailored interventions before their reliability has been conclusively established by large-scale studies. To facilitate assessing and reporting of the reliability of fMRI contrasts in future studies, we provide a toolbox that incorporates common measures of global and local reliability.

Intra-Individual Variability of Error Awareness and Post-error Slowing in Three Different Age-Groups

Background: Error awareness (EA) and post-error slowing (PES) are two crucial components of an adequate performance monitoring because, respectively, they allow being aware of an error and triggering performance adjustments following unexpected events. Objective: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the ontogenetic trajectories of EA and PES, as well as to examine how EA and PES interact with each other. Methods: The performance of three groups of participants (children, younger, and older adults) in a modified version of the Error Awareness task (EAT; Hester et al., 2005) was compared. In particular, in this study not only variations of the average performance were examined, but also intra-individual variability (IIV), considered in terms of variations of SD and ex-Gaussian parameters (mu, sigma, and tau). Results: Two distinct ontogenetic trajectories of EA and PES were observed. Regarding EA, we observe a U-shaped curve that describes an increase of the process from childhood to early adulthood and a progressive reduction advancing age in late adulthood. Furthermore, a greater IIV in older adults indicated a susceptibility of EA to the aging process. The ontogenetic trajectory of PES seems substantially different from the trajectory that describes EA since in PES we do not observe age-related differences. Conclusion: These results suggest that EA and PES are two independent processes. Furthermore, it appears that EA and PES are differently prone to short-term fluctuations in performance across the lifespan. While EA presents an increase in IIV in aging, PES seems to be immune to these changes.

Low-level alcohol consumption during adolescence and its impact on cognitive control development

Adolescence is a critical period for maturation of cognitive control and most adolescents start experimenting with alcohol around that time. On the one hand, recent studies indicate that low control abilities predict future problematic alcohol use. On the other hand, binge drinking during young adulthood can (further) impair cognitive control. However, so far no study examined the effects of low-level alcohol use during adolescence. In the present longitudinal fMRI study, we therefore investigated the development of cognitive control in a community-based sample of 92 adolescents at ages 14, 16 and 18. Two different cognitive control functions, i.e. inhibition of pre-potent responses (operationalized by incongruence effects) and switching between different task sets, were measured within one task. Alcohol use in our sample was low (mean: 54 g/week at age 18). The study revealed that neither behavioural nor neural measures of cognitive control function at age 14 predicted alcohol use at age 18 but confirmed established predictors such as gender and personality. As expected, from age 14 to 18, cognitive control abilities were improving (decreased reaction times and/or errors), and activation of cognitive control networks (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and pre-supplementary motor area) during incongruent trials increased. Unexpectedly, higher alcohol consumption during adolescence was associated with a more pronounced increase in cognitive performance and a smaller increase of neural activation when incongruent trials afforded inhibitory control. We conclude that low-level alcohol use during adolescence does not severely impair ongoing maturation of cognitive control abilities and networks.

Avoidant Responses to Interpersonal Provocation Are Associated with Increased Amygdala and Decreased Mentalizing Network Activity

When intentionally pushed or insulted, one can either flee from the provoker or retaliate. The implementation of such fight-or-flight decisions is a central aspect in the genesis and evolution of aggression episodes, yet it is usually investigated only indirectly or in nonsocial situations. In the present fMRI study, we aimed to distinguish brain regions associated with aggressive and avoidant responses to interpersonal provocation in humans. Participants (thirty-six healthy young women) could either avoid or face a highly (HP) and a lowly (LP) provoking opponent in a competitive reaction time task: the fight-or-escape (FOE) paradigm. Subjects avoided the HP more often, but retaliated when facing her. Moreover, they chose to fight the HP more quickly, and showed increased heart rate (HR) right before confronting her. Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and sensorimotor cortex were more active when participants decided to fight, whereas the mentalizing network was engaged when deciding to avoid. Importantly, avoiding the HP relative to the LP was associated with both higher activation in the right basolateral amygdala and lower relative activity in several mentalizing regions [e.g., medial and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), temporal-parietal junction (TPJ)]. These results suggest that avoidant responses to provocation might result from heightened threat anticipation and are associated with reduced perspective taking. Furthermore, our study helps to reconcile conflicting findings on the role of the mentalizing network, the amygdala, and the OFC in aggression.

Reliability in adolescent fMRI within two years - a comparison of three tasks

Longitudinal developmental fMRI studies just recently began to focus on within-subject reliability using the intraclass coefficient (ICC). It remains largely unclear which degree of reliability can be achieved in developmental studies and whether this depends on the type of task used. Therefore, we aimed to systematically investigate the reliability of three well-classified tasks: an emotional attention, a cognitive control, and an intertemporal choice paradigm. We hypothesized to find higher reliability in the cognitive task than in the emotional or reward-related task. 104 healthy mid-adolescents were scanned at age 14 and again at age 16 within M = 1.8 years using the same paradigms, scanner, and scanning protocols. Overall, we found both variability and stability (i.e. poor to excellent ICCs) depending largely on the region of interest (ROI) and task. Contrary to our hypothesis, whole brain reliability was fair for the cognitive control task but good for the emotional attention and intertemporal choice task. Subcortical ROIs (ventral striatum, amygdala) resulted in lower ICCs than visual ROIs. Current results add to the yet sparse overall ICC literature in both developing samples and adults. This study shows that analyses of stability, i.e. reliability, are helpful benchmarks for longitudinal studies and their implications for adolescent development.

Informing the Structure of Executive Function in Children: A Meta-Analysis of Functional Neuroimaging Data

The structure of executive function (EF) has been the focus of much debate for decades. What is more, the complexity and diversity provided by the developmental period only adds to this contention. The development of executive function plays an integral part in the expression of children's behavioral, cognitive, social, and emotional capabilities. Understanding how these processes are constructed during development allows for effective measurement of EF in this population. This meta-analysis aims to contribute to a better understanding of the structure of executive function in children. A coordinate-based meta-analysis was conducted (using BrainMap GingerALE 2.3), which incorporated studies administering functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during inhibition, switching, and working memory updating tasks in typical children (aged 6-18 years). The neural activation common across all executive tasks was compared to that shared by tasks pertaining only to inhibition, switching or updating, which are commonly considered to be fundamental executive processes. Results support the existence of partially separable but partially overlapping inhibition, switching, and updating executive processes at a neural level, in children over 6 years. Further, the shared neural activation across all tasks (associated with a proposed "unitary" component of executive function) overlapped to different degrees with the activation associated with each individual executive process. These findings provide evidence to support the suggestion that one of the most influential structural models of executive functioning in adults can also be applied to children of this age. However, the findings also call for careful consideration and measurement of both specific executive processes, and unitary executive function in this population. Furthermore, a need is highlighted for a new systematic developmental model, which captures the integrative nature of executive function in children.

The typical development of posterior medial frontal cortex function and connectivity during task control demands in youth 8-19years old

To characterize the development of neural substrate for interference processing and task control, this study examined both linear and non-linear effects of age on activation and connectivity during an interference task designed to engage the posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC). Seventy-two youth, ages 8-19years, performed the Multi-Source Interference Task (MSIT) during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). With increasing age, overall performance across high-interference incongruent and low-interference congruent trials became faster and more accurate. Effects of age on activation to interference- (incongruent versus congruent conditions), error- (errors versus correct trials during the incongruent condition) and overall task-processing (incongruent plus congruent conditions, relative to implicit baseline) were tested in whole-brain voxel-wise analyses. Age differentially impacted activation to overall task processing in discrete sub-regions of the pMFC: activation in the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) decreased with age, whereas activation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) followed a non-linear (i.e., U-shaped) pattern in relation to age. In addition, connectivity of pre-SMA with anterior insula/frontal operculum (AI/FO) increased with age. These findings suggest differential development of pre-SMA and dACC sub-regions within the pMFC. Moreover, as children age, decreases in pre-SMA activation may couple with increases in pre-SMA-AI/FO connectivity to support gains in processing speed in response to demands for task control.

Effects of an opioid (proenkephalin) polymorphism on neural response to errors in health and cocaine use disorder

Chronic exposure to drugs of abuse perturbs the endogenous opioid system, which plays a critical role in the development and maintenance of addictive disorders. Opioid genetics may therefore play an important modulatory role in the expression of substance use disorders, but these genes have not been extensively characterized, especially in humans. In the current imaging genetics study, we investigated a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of the protein-coding proenkephalin gene (PENK: rs2609997, recently shown to be associated with cannabis dependence) in 55 individuals with cocaine use disorder and 37 healthy controls. Analyses tested for PENK associations with fMRI response to error (during a classical color-word Stroop task) and gray matter volume (voxel-based morphometry) as a function of Diagnosis (cocaine, control). Results revealed whole-brain Diagnosis×PENK interactions on the neural response to errors (fMRI error>correct contrast) in the right putamen, left rostral anterior cingulate cortex/medial orbitofrontal cortex, and right inferior frontal gyrus; there was also a significant Diagnosis×PENK interaction on right inferior frontal gyrus gray matter volume. These interactions were driven by differences between individuals with cocaine use disorders and controls that were accentuated in individuals carrying the higher-risk PENK C-allele. Taken together, the PENK polymorphism-and potentially opioid neurotransmission more generally-modulates functioning and structural integrity of brain regions previously implicated in error-related processing. PENK could potentially render a subgroup of individuals with cocaine use disorder (i.e., C-allele carriers) more sensitive to mistakes or other related challenges; in future studies, these results could contribute to the development of individualized genetics-informed treatments.