IL-24 inhibits lung cancer cell migration and invasion by disrupting the SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling axis

Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy Against Melanoma through Exosomal Delivery of Hesperidin

Melanoma, characterized as the most aggressive and metastatic form of skin cancer, currently has limited treatment options, predominantly chemotherapy and radiation therapy. However, the drawbacks associated with parenterally administered chemotherapy underscore the urgent need for alternative compounds to combat melanoma effectively. Hesperidin (HES), a flavonoid present in various citrus fruits, exhibits promising anticancer activity. Nevertheless, the clinical utility of HES is hindered by challenges such as poor water solubility, a short half-life, and low oral bioavailability. In response to these limitations, we introduced a novel approach by formulating HES-loaded exosomes (Exo-HES). Isolation of exosomes was achieved through the ultracentrifugation method, and HES was efficiently loaded using the sonication method. The resulting formulations displayed a desirable particle size (∼106 nm) and exhibited a spherical morphology, as confirmed by scanning electron and atomic force microscopy. In vitro studies conducted on B16F10 cell lines demonstrated higher cytotoxicity of Exo-HES compared to free HES, supported by enhanced cellular uptake validated through coumarin-6-loaded exosomes. This superior cytotoxicity was further evidenced by DNA fragmentation, increased generation of free radicals (ROS), loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and effective inhibition of colony formation. The antimetastatic properties of Exo-HES were confirmed through wound healing and transwell migration assays. Oral pharmacokinetics studies revealed a remarkable increase of approximately 2.5 times in oral bioavailability and half-life of HES when loaded into exosomes. Subsequent in vivo experiments utilizing a B16F10-induced melanoma model in Swiss mice established that Exo-HES exhibited superior anticancer activity compared to HES after oral administration. Importantly, no biochemical, hematological, or histological toxicities were observed in tumor-bearing mice treated with Exo-HES. These findings suggest that exosomes loaded with HES represent a promising nanocarrier strategy to enhance the therapeutic effectiveness of hesperidin in melanoma treatment.

Single-cell RNA sequencing defines disease-specific differences between chronic nodular prurigo and atopic dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Chronic nodular prurigo (CNPG) is an inflammatory skin disease that is maintained by a chronic itch-scratch cycle likely rooted in neuroimmunological dysregulation. This condition may be associated with atopy in some patients, and there are now promising therapeutic results from blocking type 2 cytokines such as IL-4, IL-13, and IL-31.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to improve the understanding of pathomechanisms underlying CNPG as well as molecular relationships between CNPG and atopic dermatitis (AD).

METHODS

We profiled skin lesions from patients with CNPG in comparison with AD and healthy control individuals using single-cell RNA sequencing combined with T-cell receptor sequencing.

RESULTS

We found type 2 immune skewing in both CNPG and AD, as evidenced by CD4+ helper T cells expressing IL13. However, only AD harbored an additional, oligoclonally expanded CD8A+IL9R+IL13+ cytotoxic T-cell population, and immune activation pathways were highly upregulated in AD, but less so in CNPG. Conversely, CNPG showed signatures of extracellular matrix organization, collagen synthesis, and fibrosis, including a unique population of CXCL14-IL24+ secretory papillary fibroblasts. Besides known itch mediators such as IL31 and oncostatin M, we also detected increased levels of neuromedin B in fibroblasts of CNPG lesions compared with AD and HC, with neuromedin B receptors detectable on some nerve endings.

CONCLUSIONS

These data show that CNPG does not harbor the strong disease-specific immune activation pathways that are typically found in AD but is rather characterized by upregulated stromal remodeling mechanisms that might have a direct impact on itch fibers.

A Bridge too Far? Comparison of Transition Metal Complexes of Dibenzyltetraazamacrocycles with and without Ethylene Cross-Bridges: X-ray Crystal Structures, Kinetic Stability, and Electronic Properties

Tetraazamacrocycles, cyclic molecules with four nitrogen atoms, have long been known to produce highly stable transition metal complexes. Cross-bridging such molecules with two-carbon chains has been shown to enhance the stability of these complexes even further. This provides enough stability to use the resulting compounds in applications as diverse and demanding as aqueous, green oxidation catalysis all the way to drug molecules injected into humans. Although the stability of these compounds is believed to result from the increased rigidity and topological complexity imparted by the cross-bridge, there is insufficient experimental data to exclude other causes. In this study, standard organic and inorganic synthetic methods were used to produce unbridged dibenzyl tetraazamacrocycle complexes of Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn that are analogues of known cross-bridged tetraazamacrocycles and their transition metal complexes to allow direct comparison of molecules that are identical except for the cross-bridge. The syntheses of the known tetraazamacrocycles and the new transition metal complexes were successful with high yields and purity. Initial chemical characterization of the complexes was conducted by UV-Visible spectroscopy, while cyclic voltammetry showed more marked differences in electronic properties from bridged versions. Direct comparison studies of the unbridged and bridged compounds' kinetic stabilities, as demonstrated by decomposition using high acid concentration and elevated temperature, showed that the cyclen-based complex stability did not benefit from cross-bridging. This is likely due to poor complementarity with the Cu²⁺ ion while cyclam-based complexes benefited greatly. We conclude that ligand-metal complementarity must be maintained in order for the topological and rigidity constraints imparted by the cross-bridge to contribute significantly to complex robustness.

Research Progress on Therapeutic Targeting of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts to Tackle Treatment-Resistant NSCLC

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for most lung cancer cases and is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Treatment options for lung cancer are no longer limited to surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, as targeted therapy and immunotherapy offer a new hope for patients. However, drug resistance in chemotherapy and targeted therapy, and the low response rates to immunotherapy remain important challenges. Similar to tumor development, drug resistance occurs because of significant effects exerted by the tumor microenvironment (TME) along with cancer cell mutations. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a key component of the TME and possess multiple functions, including cross-talking with cancer cells, remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM), secretion of various cytokines, and promotion of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, which in turn provide support for the growth, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance of cancer cells. Therefore, CAFs represent valuable therapeutic targets for lung cancer. Herein, we review the latest progress in the use of CAFs as potential targets and mediators of drug resistance for NSCLC treatment. We explored the role of CAFs on the regulation of the TME and surrounding ECM, with particular emphasis on treatment strategies involving combined CAF targeting within the current framework of cancer treatment.

Targeting Cancer Stem Cells: Therapeutic and diagnostic strategies by the virtue of nanoparticles

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are the subpopulation of cells present within a tumor with the properties of self-renewing, differentiating, and proliferating. Owing to the presence of ATP-binding cassette drug pumps and increased expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, the conventional chemotherapeutic agents have failed to eliminate CSCs resulting in relapse and resistance of cancer. Therefore, to obtain long-lasting clinical responses and avoid the recurrence of cancer, it is crucial to develop an efficient strategy targeting CSCs by either employing a differentiation therapy or specifically delivering drugs to CSCs. Several intracellular and extracellular cancer specific biomarkers are overexpressed by CSCs and are utilized as targets for the development of new approaches in the diagnosis and treatment of CSCs. Moreover, several nanostructured particles, alone or in combination with current treatment approaches, have been used to improve the detection, imaging, and targeting of CSCs, thus addressing the limitations of cancer therapies. Targeting CSC surface markers, stemness-related signaling pathways, and tumor microenvironmental signals has improved the detection and eradication of CSCs and, therefore, tumor diagnosis and treatment. This review summarizes a variety of promising nanoparticles targeting the surface biomarkers of CSCs for the detection and eradication of tumor-initiating stem cells, used in combination with other treatment regimens.

Emodin inhibits U87 glioblastoma cells migration by activating aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling pathway

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated receptor to mediates the biological reactions of many environmental and natural compounds, which is highly expressed in glioblastoma. Although it has been reported that AhR agonist emodin can suppress some kinds of tumors, its inhibitory effect on glioblastoma migration and its relationship with AhR remain unclear. Based on the complexity of tumor pathogenesis and the tissue specificity of AhR, we hope can further understand the effect of emodin on glioblastoma and explore its mechanism. We found that the inhibitory effect of emodin on the migration of U87 glioblastoma cells increased with time, and the cell migration ability was inhibited by about 25% after 36 h exposure. In this process, emodin promoted the expression of the tumor suppressor IL24 by activating the AhR signaling pathway. Reducing the expression of AhR or IL24 by interfering RNA could block or relieve the inhibitory effect of emodin on the U87 cells migration, which indicates the inhibition of emodin on the migration of glioblastoma is mediated by the AhR-IL24 axis. Our data proved the AhR-IL24 signal axis is an important pathway for emodin to inhibit the migration of glioblastoma, and the AhR signaling pathway can be used as a key target to research the regulation effect and its mechanism of compounds on glioblastoma migration.

Upregulation of hsa-miR-625-5p Inhibits Invasion of Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cancer Cells through ILK/AKT Pathway

Objective

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is characterized by abnormalities of differentiation and growth of primary hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the blood and bone marrow. In many studies, miR-625-5p has been shown to inhibit downstream pathways from affecting the metastasis and invasion of the integrin-linked kinase (ILK) signaling pathway. It has been proved that the expression of miR-625-5p decreases in AML cell lines. This study aimed to investigate the effect of miR-625-5p upregulation on the invasion of KG1 ell line in vitro.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, we investigated the impact of upregulation of miR-625-5p on invasion via the ILK/AKT pathway in the KG1 cell line. After transfection using the viral method, the cellular invasion was assessed by invasion assay and the levels of miR-625-5p genes and protein were evaluated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and western blotting. Moreover, CXCR4 level was assessed by flow cytometry.

Results

The invasion significantly reduced in MiR-625-5p-transfected KG1 cells (P<0.01) that was concomitant with remarkably decreasing in the expression levels of ILK, NF-κB, and COX2 genes compare with the control group (P<0.01). Incontrast, MMP9, AP1, and AKT significantly increased (P<0.01, P<0.001 and P<0.01, respectively) and GSK3β did not change significantly in MiR-625-5p-transfected KG1 cells. The protein level of NF-κB decreased (P<0.01) and MMP9 increased, however it was not significant. Moreoever, the expression of CXCR4 was significantly lower (P<0.01) in comparison with the control group.

Conclusion

miR-625-5p leads to a reduction in cell invasion in the AML cell line through ILK pathway. Therefore, it could be a breakthrough in future AML-related research. However, further studies are needed to support this argument.

TCDD-induced IL-24 secretion in human chorionic stromal cells inhibits placental trophoblast cell migration and invasion

Environmental pollutant dioxins are potentially harmful to pregnant women and can lead to severe adverse outcomes in pregnancy, such as spontaneous abortion and stillbirth. However, little is currently known about the underlying toxicological mechanism. Our previous study reported that the IL-24 gene is a dioxin response gene during 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) treatment. Here, we further tested the effect of TCDD on IL-24 expression in human chorionic stromal cells. We also investigated the effect of IL-24 on the behaviors of human placental trophoblast cells and predicted the potential mechanism underlying these behaviors using functional network analysis. We found that TCDD stimulates IL-24 expression in human chorionic stromal cells in an AhR (aromatic hydrocarbon receptor)-related manner. We also found that IL-24 inhibits the migration and invasion of human placental trophoblast cells, the possible mechanism of which involves thirteen key proteins and mitochondrial function. Our findings suggest that IL-24 is a potential factor induced by TCDD to regulate trophoblast cell invasion, which potentially involves in TCDD-induced abortion.

Expanding and quantifying the crystal chemistry of the flexible ligand 15aneN5

15aneN5 is structurally characterized complexed to Cr3+, Mn3+, Fe3+, Co3+, and Cu2+ for the first time. Ru3+ complexation yields a Ru2+ diimine structure. A geometric factor quantifies the coordination geometry of the ligand in its complexes.

Rutaecarpine Inhibits U87 Glioblastoma Cell Migration by Activating the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Signaling Pathway

Glioblastoma is the most frequent and aggressive primary astrocytoma in adults. The high migration ability of the tumor cells is an important reason for the high recurrence rate and poor prognosis of glioblastoma. Recently, emerging evidence has shown that the migration ability of glioblastoma cells was inhibited upon the activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), suggesting potential anti-tumor effects of AhR agonists. Rutaecarpine is a natural compound with potential tumor therapeutic effects which can possibly bind to AhR. However, its effect on the migration of glioblastoma is unclear. Therefore, we aim to explore the effects of rutaecarpine on the migration of human glioblastoma cells U87 and the involvement of the AhR signaling pathway. The results showed that: (i) compared with other structural related alkaloids, like evodiamine and dehydroevodiamine, rutaecarpine was a more potent AhR activator, and has a stronger inhibitory effect on the glioblastoma cell migration; (ii) rutaecarpine decreased the migration ability of U87 cells in an AhR-dependent manner; (iii) AhR mediated the expression of a tumor suppressor interleukin 24 (IL24) induced by rutaecarpine, and AhR-IL24 axis was involved in the anti-migratory effects of rutaecarpine on the glioblastoma. Besides IL24, other candidates AhR downstream genes both associated with cancer and migration were proposed to participate in the migration regulation of rutaecarpine by RNA-Seq and bioinformatic analysis. These data indicate that rutaecarpine is a naturally-derived AhR agonist that could inhibit the migration of U87 human glioblastoma cells mostly via the AhR-IL24 axis.

Synergistic Inhibitory Effects of 5-Aza-2'-Deoxycytidine and Cisplatin on Urothelial Carcinoma Growth via Suppressing TGFBI-MAPK Signaling Pathways

This study is to reveal the gene transcriptional alteration, possible molecular mechanism, and pathways involved in the synergy of 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (DAC) and CDDP in UC. Two UC cell lines, 5637 and T24, were used in the study. A cDNA microarray was carried out to identify critical genes in the synergistic mechanism of both agents against UC cells. The results showed that several key regulatory genes, such as interleukin 24(IL24), fibroblast growth factor 1(FGF1), and transforming growth factor beta-induced (TGFBI), were identified and may play critical roles in the synergy of DAC and CDDP in UC. Pathway enrichment suggested that many carcinogenesis-related pathways, such as ECM-receptor interaction and MAPK signaling pathways, may participate in the synergy of both agents. Our results suggested that TGF-β1 stimulates the phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2 and p38 via increasing TGFBI expression, TGFBI-MAPK signaling pathway plays an important role in the synergy of DAC and CDDP against UC. Therefore, we revealed the synergistic mechanism of DAC and CDDP in UC, several key regulatory genes play critical roles in the synergy of combined treatment, and TGFBI-MAPK signaling pathway may be an important potential target of these two agents.

A new insight into the role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in the migration of glioblastoma by AhR-IL24 axis regulation

Cancer occurrence and development are closely related to the environment. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is an important receptor mediating the toxic effects of many environmental compounds, and is also involved in regulating tumor cell migration. Glioblastoma is the most malignant glioma and exhibits high motility, but the effects of AhR on the migration of glioblastoma are still unclear. We aimed to understand the role of AhR in the migration of this type of tumor cell and to explore the underlying molecular mechanism. In cultured human neuroblastoma cells (U87), we found that AhR overexpression or knockdown increased or suppressed the migration ability of U87 cells, respectively. Furthermore, inhibition of basal activation of the AhR pathway suppressed migration ability, suggesting a positive correlation between endogenous activity of the AhR pathway and cell migration. When the AhR pathway was activated by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) or 6-formyl [3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ), the migration of U87 cells was inhibited by inducing the expression of a tumor suppressor, IL24, which is a downstream responsive gene of AhR activation. Moreover, a similar AhR-IL24-dependent mechanism for migration inhibition of TCDD was documented in a breast cancer cell line and a lung cancer cell line. This study demonstrated that AhR plays important roles in regulating the migration of glioblastoma, and the induction of the AhR-IL24 axis mediates the inhibition of migration in response to TCDD or FICZ treatment.

Cancer-associated fibroblast-derived SDF-1 induces epithelial-mesenchymal transition of lung adenocarcinoma via CXCR4/β-catenin/PPARδ signalling

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) contribute to tumour epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) via interaction with cancer cells. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying tumour-promoting EMT of CAFs in lung adenocarcinoma (ADC) remain unclear. Here, we observed that CAFs isolated from lung ADC promoted EMT via production of stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) in conditioned medium (CM). CAF-derived SDF-1 enhanced invasiveness and EMT by upregulating CXCR4, β-catenin, and PPARδ, while downregulating these proteins reversed the effect. Furthermore, RNAi-mediated CXCR4 knockdown suppressed β-catenin and PPARδ expression, while β-catenin inhibition effectively downregulated PPARδ without affecting CXCR4; however, treatment with a PPARδ inhibitor did not inhibit CXCR4 or β-catenin expression. Additionally, pairwise analysis revealed that high expression of CXCR4, β-catenin, and PPARδ correlated positively with 75 human lung adenocarcinoma tissues, which was predictive of poor prognosis. Thus, targeting the CAF-derived, SDF-1-mediated CXCR4 β-catenin/ PPARδ cascade may serve as an effective targeted approach for lung cancer treatment.

Interleukin (IL)-24: Reconfiguring the Tumor Microenvironment for Eliciting Antitumor Response

Interleukin (IL)-24 is a member of the IL-10 family of cytokines. Due to its unique ability to function as both a tumor suppressor and cytokine, IL-24-based cancer therapy has been developed for treating a broad spectrum of human cancers. Majority of the studies reported to date have focused on establishing IL-24 as a cancer therapeutic by primarily focusing on tumor cell killing. However, the ability of IL-24 treatment on modulating the tumor microenvironment and immune response is underinvestigated. In this article, we summarize the biological and functional properties of IL-24 and the benefits of applying IL-24-based therapy for cancer.

Hiltonol Cocktail Kills Lung Cancer Cells by Activating Cancer-Suppressors, PKR/OAS, and Restraining the Tumor Microenvironment

NSCLC (non-small cell lung cancer) is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Clinical trials showed that Hiltonol, a stable dsRNA representing an advanced form of polyI:C (polyinosinic-polycytidilic acid), is an adjuvant cancer-immunomodulator. However, its mechanisms of action and effect on lung cancer have not been explored pre-clinically. Here, we examined, for the first time, how a novel Hiltonol cocktail kills NSCLC cells. By retrospective analysis of NSCLC patient tissues obtained from the tumor biobank; pre-clinical studies with Hiltonol alone or Hiltonol⁺⁺⁺ cocktail [Hiltonol+anti-IL6+AG490 (JAK2 inhibitor)+Stattic (STAT3 inhibitor)]; cytokine analysis; gene knockdown and gain/loss-of-function studies, we uncovered the mechanisms of action of Hiltonol⁺⁺⁺. We demonstrated that Hiltonol⁺⁺⁺ kills the cancer cells and suppresses the metastatic potential of NSCLC through: (i) upregulation of pro-apoptotic Caspase-9 and Caspase-3, (ii) induction of cytosolic cytochrome c, (iii) modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (GRO, MCP-1, IL-8, and IL-6) and anticancer IL-24 in NSCLC subtypes, and (iv) upregulation of tumor suppressors, PKR (protein kinase R) and OAS (2′5′ oligoadenylate synthetase). In silico analysis showed that Lys296 of PKR and Lys66 of OAS interact with Hiltonol. These Lys residues are purportedly involved in the catalytic/signaling activity of the tumor suppressors. Furthermore, knockdown of PKR/OAS abrogated the anticancer action of Hiltonol, provoking survival of cancer cells. Ex vivo analysis of NSCLC patient tissues corroborated that loss of PKR and OAS is associated with cancer advancement. Altogether, our findings unraveled the significance of studying tumor biobank tissues, which suggests PKR and OAS as precision oncological suppressor candidates to be targeted by this novel Hiltonol⁺⁺⁺ cocktail which represents a prospective drug for development into a potent and tailored therapy for NSCLC subtypes.

Inflection of Akt/mTOR/STAT-3 cascade in TNF-α induced protein 8 mediated human lung carcinogenesis

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death across the globe. Despite the marked advances in detection and therapeutic approaches, management of lung cancer patients remains a major challenge to oncologists which can be mainly attributed to late stage diagnosis, tumor recurrence and chemoresistance. Therefore, to overthrow these limitations, there arises a vital need to develop effective biomarkers for the successful management of this aggressive cancer type. Notably, TNF-alpha induced protein 8 (TIPE), a nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB)-inducible, oncogenic molecule and cytoplasmic protein which is involved in the regulation of T lymphocyte-mediated immunity and different processes in tumor cells such as proliferation, cell death and evasion of growth suppressors, might serve as one such biomarker which would facilitate effective management of lung cancer. Expression studies revealed this protein to be significantly upregulated in different lung cancer types, pathological conditions, stages and grades of lung tumor compared to normal human lung tissues. In addition, knockout of TIPE led to the reduced proliferation, survival, invasion and migration of lung cancer cells. Furthermore, TIPE was found to function through modulation of Akt/mTOR/STAT-3 signaling cascade. This is the first report which shows the involvement of TIPE in tobacco induced lung carcinogenesis. It positively regulated nicotine, NNK, NNN, and BaP induced proliferation, survival and migration of lung cancer cells possibly via Akt/STAT-3 signaling. Thus, this protein possesses important role in the pathogenesis of lung tumor and hence it can be targeted for developing newer therapeutic interventions for the clinico-management of lung cancer.

Bis-indole derived nuclear receptor 4A1 (NR4A1) antagonists inhibit TGFβ-induced invasion of embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma cells

Transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) enhances invasion of breast and lung cancer cells through phosphorylation-dependent nuclear export of the nuclear receptor 4A1 (NR4A1, Nur77). This response is inhibited by the NR4A1 antagonist 1,1-bis(3'-indoly)-1-(p-hydroxyphenyl) methane (CDIM8) and we hypothesized that similar effects would be observed in Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cells. Although some kinase inhibitors block TGFβ-induced invasion of embryonal RMS (ERMS) cells, the mechanism differs from breast and lung cancer cells since NR4A1 is extranuclear in ERMS cells. However, CDIM8 blocks basal and TGFβ-induced invasion of RD and SMS-CTR ERMS cell lines but not Rh30 alveolar RMS (ARMS) cells. Moreover, this response in ERMS cells was independent of SMAD7 degradation or activation of SMAD2/SMAD3. β-Catenin silencing decreased ERMS cell invasion and CDIM8 induced proteasome-independent downregulation of β-catenin. The novel mechanism of CDIM8-mediated inhibition of basal and TGFβ-induced ERMS cell invasion was due to activation of the Bcl-2-NR4A1 complex, mitochondrial disruption, induction of the tumor suppressor-like cytokine interleukin-24 (IL-24) which in turn downregulates β-catenin expression. Thus, the NR4A1 antagonist inhibits TGFβ-induced invasion of ERMS cells through initial targeting of cytosolic NR4A1.

Cancer Stem Cells: Acquisition, Characteristics, Therapeutic Implications, Targeting Strategies and Future Prospects

Since last two decades, the major cancer research has focused on understanding the characteristic properties and mechanism of formation of Cancer stem cells (CSCs), due to their ability to initiate tumor growth, self-renewal property and multi-drug resistance. The discovery of the mechanism of acquisition of stem-like properties by carcinoma cells via epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has paved a way towards a deeper understanding of CSCs and presented a possible avenue for the development of therapeutic strategies. In spite of years of research, various challenges, such as identification of CSC subpopulation, lack of appropriate experimental models, targeting cancer cells and CSCs specifically without harming normal cells, are being faced while dealing with CSCs. Here, we discuss the biology and characteristics of CSCs, mode of acquisition of stemness (via EMT) and development of multi-drug resistance, the role of tumor niche, the process of dissemination and metastasis, therapeutic implications of CSCs and necessity of targeting them. We emphasise various strategies being developed to specifically target CSCs, including those targeting biomarkers, key pathways and microenvironment. Finally, we focus on the challenges that need to be subdued and propose the aspects that need to be addressed in future studies in order to broaden the understanding of CSCs and develop novel strategies to eradicate them in clinical applications. Graphical Abstract Cancer Stem Cells(CSCs) have gained much attention in the last few decades due to their ability to initiate tumor growth and, self-renewal property and multi-drug resistance. Here, we represent the CSC model of cancer, Characteristics of CSCs, acquisition of stemness and metastatic dissemination of cancer, Therapeutic implications of CSCs and Various strategies being employed to target and eradicate CSCs.

Regorafenib sensitizes human breast cancer cells to radiation by inhibiting multiple kinases and inducing DNA damage

PURPOSE

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most challenging and aggressive subtype of breast cancer with limited treatment options because of tumor heterogeneity, lack of druggable targets and therapy resistance. TNBCs are characterized by overexpression of growth factor receptors such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), and platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) making them promising therapeutic targets. Regorafenib is an FDA approved oral multi-kinase inhibitor that blocks the activity of multiple protein kinases including those involved in the regulation of tumor angiogenesis [VEGFR1-3, TIE2], tumor microenvironment [PDGFR-β, FGFR] and oncogenesis (KIT, RET, RAF-1, BRAF). In the current study, we examined the radiosensitizing effects of Regorafenib on TNBC cell lines and explored the mechanism by which Regorafenib enhances radiosensitivity.

METHODS

MDA-MB-231 and SUM159PT (human TNBC cell lines) and MCF 10a (human mammary epithelial cell line) were treated with Regorafenib, ionizing radiation or a combination of both. Following treatment with Regorafenib and radiation we conducted clonogenic assay to determine radiosensitivity, immunoblot analysis to assess the effect on key signaling targets, tube formation to evaluate effect on angiogenesis and comet assay as well as western blot for γH2AX to assess DNA damage response (DDR).

RESULTS

Regorafenib reduced cell proliferation and enhanced radiosensitivity of MDA-MB-231 and SUM159PT cell lines but had no effect on the MCF 10a cells. Clonogenic survival assays showed that the surviving fraction at 2 Gy for both MDA-MB-231 and SUM159PT was reduced from 66.4 ± 8.9 and 88.2 ± 1.7 in controls to 38.1 ± 4.9 and 75.1 ± 1.1 following a 24 hr pretreatment with 10 μM and 5 μM Regorafenib, respectively. A marked reduction in the expression of VEGFR, PDGFR, EGFR and the downstream target, ERK, was observed with Regorafenib treatment alone or in combination with radiation. We also observed a significant inhibition of VEGF-A production in the TNBC cell lines following treatment with Regorafenib. Further, the addition of conditioned medium from Regorafenib-treated tumor cells onto human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) suppressed tube formation, indicating an inhibition of tumor angiogenesis. Regorafenib also decreased migration of TNBC cells and suppressed radiation-induced DNA damage repair in a time-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate that Regorafenib enhanced radiosensitivity of breast cancer cells by inhibiting the expression of multiple receptor tyrosine kinases, VEGF-mediated angiogenesis and DNA damage response in TNBC. Therefore, combining Regorafenib with radiation and antiangiogenic agents will be beneficial and effective in controlling TNBC.

IL-24 Inhibits Lung Cancer Growth by Suppressing GLI1 and Inducing DNA Damage

Aberrant expression of GLI1 is responsible for aggressive tumor behavior and survival due to its effects on the DNA damage response (DDR). We investigated whether interleukin (IL)-24, a tumor suppressor, inhibits GLI1 and the associated DDR pathway in human NSCLCs. IL-24 treatment reduces mRNA and protein expression of GLI1 in lung tumor cells, but not in normal cells. GLI1 reporter assay and mRNA studies demonstrated that IL-24 regulates GLI1 at the post-transcriptional level by favoring mRNA degradation. Associated with GLI1 inhibition was marked suppression of the ATM-mediated DDR pathway resulting in increased DNA damage, as evidenced by γ-H2AX foci and Comet assay. Furthermore, attenuation of GLI1-associated DDR by IL-24 increased caspase-3 and PARP activity, resulting in cancer cell apoptosis. GLI1 inhibition and overexpression confirmed that IL-24-mediated anti-tumor effects involved the GLI-dependent pathway. Finally, we observed that IL-24-mediated alteration in GLI1 is independent of the canonical hedgehog-signaling pathway. Our study provides evidence that IL-24 treatment induces DNA damage, and reduces GLI1 expression and offers an opportunity for testing IL-24-based therapy for inhibiting GLI1 in lung cancer.

Cancer Conditioned Medium Modulates Functional and Phenotypic Properties of Human Decidua Parietalis Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells

Background

Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells (MSCs) from the decidua parietalis (DPMSCs) of human term placenta express several molecules with important biological and immunological properties. DPMSCs induce natural killer cell expression of inflammatory receptors and their cytotoxic activity against cancer cells. These properties make DPMSCs promising therapeutical agent for cancer. The successful development of MSCs as an anti-cancer therapeutic cells rely on their ability to function in a hostile inflammatory and oxidative stress cancer environment. Here, we studied the effects of conditioned medium obtained from the culture of breast cancer cells (CMMDA-231) on the functional and phenotypic properties of DPMSCs.

Methods

DPMSCs were cultured with CMMDA-231 and important functions of DPMSCs were measured. The effect of CMMDA-231 on DPMSC expression of several genes with different functions was also evaluated.

Results

DPMSCs were able to function in response to CMMDA-231, but with reduced proliferative and adhesive potentials. Preconditioning of DPMSCs with CMMDA-231 enhanced their adhesion while reducing their invasion. In addition, CMMDA-231 modulated DPMSC expression of many genes with various functional (i.e., proliferation, adhesion, and invasion) properties. DPMSCs also showed increased expression of genes with anti-cancer property.

Conclusion

These data show the ability of DPMSCs to survive and function in cancer environment. In addition, preconditioning of DPMSCs with CMMDA-231 enhanced their anti-cancer properties and thus demonstrating their potential as an anti-cancer therapeutic agent. However, future studies are essential to reveal the mechanism underlying the effects of MDA-231 on DPMSC functional activities and also to confirm the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of DPMSCs.

Targeting CXCL12/CXCR4 Axis in Tumor Immunotherapy

Chemokines, which have chemotactic abilities, are comprised of a family of small cytokines with 8-10 kilodaltons. Chemokines work in immune cells by trafficking and regulating cell proliferation, migration, activation, differentiation, and homing. CXCR-4 is an alpha-chemokine receptor specific for stromal-derived-factor-1 (SDF-1, also known as CXCL12), which has been found to be expressed in more than 23 different types of cancers. Recently, the SDF-1/CXCR-4 signaling pathway has emerged as a potential therapeutic target for human tumor because of its critical role in tumor initiation and progression by activating multiple signaling pathways, such as ERK1/2, ras, p38 MAPK, PLC/ MAPK, and SAPK/ JNK, as well as regulating cancer stem cells. CXCL12/CXCR4 antagonists have been produced, which have shown encouraging results in anti-cancer activity. Here, we provide a brief overview of the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis as a molecular target for cancer treatment. We also review the potential utility of targeting CXCL12/CXCR4 axis in combination of immunotherapy and/or chemotherapy based on up-to-date literature and ongoing research progress.

Long Noncoding RNAs and Messenger RNAs Expression Profiles Potentially Regulated by ZBTB7A in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Our previous studies showed that ZBTB7A played an important role in promoting nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) progression. However, molecular mechanisms of different levels of ZBTB7A are still unclear. It is necessary to search molecular markers which are closely connected with ZBTB7A. We selected NPC sublines CNE2 with stably transfecting empty plasmid (negative control, NC) and short hair RNA (shRNA) plasmid targeting ZBTB7A as research objectives. Microarray was used to screen differentially expressed long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) via shRNA-CNE2 versus NC-CNE2. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was used to validate lncRNAs and mRNAs from the sublines, chronic rhinitis, and NPC tissues. Bioinformatics was used to analyze regulatory pathways which were connected with ZBTB7A. The 1501 lncRNAs (long noncoding RNAs) and 1275 differentially expressed mRNAs were upregulated or downregulated over 2-fold. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis revealed that the upregulated or downregulated carbohydrate and lipid metabolisms probably involved in carcinogenicity of shRNA-CNE2 (P-value cut-off was 0.05). In order to find the molecular mechanisms of ZBTB7A, we validated 12 differentially expressed lncRNAs and their nearby mRNAs by qPCR. Most of the differentially expressed mRNAs are closely connected with carbohydrate and lipid metabolisms in multiply cancers. Furthermore, part of them were validated in NPC and rhinitis tissues by qPCR. As a result, NR_047538, ENST00000442852, and fatty acid synthase (FASN) were closely associated with NPC. ZBTB7A had a positive association with NR_047538 and negative associations with ENST00000442852 and FASN. The results probably provide novel candidate biomarkers for NPC progression with different levels of ZBTB7A.

Context-Dependent Signaling of CXC Chemokine Receptor 4 and Atypical Chemokine Receptor 3

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are regulated by complex molecular mechanisms, both in physiologic and pathologic conditions, and their signaling can be intricate. Many factors influence their signaling behavior, including the type of ligand that activates the GPCR, the presence of interacting partners, the kinetics involved, or their location. The two CXC-type chemokine receptors, CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) and atypical chemokine receptor 3 (ACKR3), both members of the GPCR superfamily, are important and established therapeutic targets in relation to cancer, human immunodeficiency virus infection, and inflammatory diseases. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how the signaling of these receptors works to be able to specifically target them. In this review, we discuss how the signaling pathways activated by CXCR4 and ACKR3 can vary in different situations. G protein signaling of CXCR4 depends on the cellular context, and discrepancies exist depending on the cell lines used. ACKR3, as an atypical chemokine receptor, is generally reported to not activate G proteins but can broaden its signaling spectrum upon heteromerization with other receptors, such as CXCR4, endothelial growth factor receptor, or the α ₁-adrenergic receptor (α ₁-AR). Also, CXCR4 forms heteromers with CC chemokine receptor (CCR) 2, CCR5, the Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger regulatory factor 1, CXCR3, α ₁-AR, and the opioid receptors, which results in differential signaling from that of the monomeric subunits. In addition, CXCR4 is present on membrane rafts but can go into the nucleus during cancer progression, probably acquiring different signaling properties. In this review, we also provide an overview of the currently known critical amino acids involved in CXCR4 and ACKR3 signaling.

Genome-Wide and Phenotypic Evaluation of Stem Cell Progenitors Derived From Gprc5a-Deficient Murine Lung Adenocarcinoma With Somatic Kras Mutations

Lung adenocarcinomas (LUADs) with somatic mutations in the KRAS oncogene comprise the most common molecular subtype of lung cancer in smokers and present with overall dismal prognosis and resistance to most therapies. Our group recently demonstrated that tobacco carcinogen-exposed mice with knockout of the airway lineage G-protein coupled receptor, Gprc5a, develop LUADs with somatic mutations in Kras. Earlier work has suggested that cancer stem cells (CSCs) play crucial roles in clonal evolution of tumors and in therapy resistance. To date, our understanding of CSCs in LUADs with somatic Kras mutations remains lagging. Here we derived CSCs (as spheres in 3D cultures) with self-renewal properties from a murine Kras-mutant LUAD cell line we previously established from a tobacco carcinogen-exposed Gprc5a^−/− mouse. Using syngeneic Gprc5a^−/− models, we found that these CSCs, compared to their parental isoforms, exhibited increased tumorigenic potential in vivo, particularly in female animals. Using whole-transcriptome sequencing coupled with pathways analysis and confirmatory PCR, we identified gene features (n = 2,600) differentially expressed in the CSCs compared to parental cells and that were enriched with functional modules associated with an augmented malignant phenotype including stemness, tumor-promoting inflammation and anti-oxidant responses. Further, based on in silico predicted activation of GSK3β in CSCs, we found that tideglusib, an irreversible inhibitor of the kinase, exhibited marked anti-growth effects in the cultured CSCs. Our study underscores molecular cues in the pathogenesis of Kras-mutant LUAD and presents new models to study the evolution, and thus high-potential targets, of this aggressive malignancy.

Tetraazamacrocyclic derivatives and their metal complexes as antileishmanial leads

A total of 44 bis-aryl-monocyclic polyamines, monoaryl-monocyclic polyamines and their transition metal complexes were prepared, chemically characterized, and screened in vitro against the Leishmania donovani promastigotes, axenic amastigotes and intracellular amastigotes in THP1 cells. The IC₅₀ and/or IC₉₀ values showed that 10 compounds were similarly active at about 2-fold less potent than known drug pentamidine against promastigotes. The most potent compound had an IC₅₀ of 2.82 μM (compared to 2.93 μM for pentamidine). Nine compounds were 1.1-13.6-fold more potent than pentamidine against axenic amastigotes, the most potent one being about 2-fold less potent than amphotericin B. Fourteen compounds were about 2-10 fold more potent than pentamidine, the most potent one is about 2-fold less potent than amphotericin B against intracellular amastigotes in THP1 cells. The 2 most promising compounds (FeL7Cl₂ and MnL7Cl₂), with strong activity against both promastigotes and amastigotes and no observable toxicity against the THP1 cells are the Fe²⁺- and Mn²⁺- complexes of a dibenzyl cyclen derivative. Only 2 of the 44 compounds showed observable cytotoxicity against THP1 cells. Tetraazamacrocyclic monocyclic polyamines represent a new class of antileishmanial lead structures that warrant follow up studies.

Modification of IL-24 by tumor penetrating peptide iRGD enhanced its antitumor efficacy against non-small cell lung cancer

Interleukin-24 (IL-24) is known for its tumor suppressive activity and the selective induction of apoptosis of numerous human cancer cells, while demonstrating little harm to normal cells. However, poor tumor penetration remains a key problem for the efficacy of IL-24 as a treatment. The iRGD (CRGDK/RGPDC) is a novel tumor-specific peptide with unique tumor-penetrating and cell-internalizing properties. To enhance the tumor-penetrating effects of IL-24, the iRGD peptide was fused with the C-terminal domain of IL-24 to generate a novel recombinant protein, IL-24-iRGD. The aim of the present study was to investigate the antitumor effects of IL-24-iRGD in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells in vitro and in vivo. It was observed that IL-24-iRGD increased the production of IL-6, TNF-α and INF-γ from human peripheral blood monocyte (PBMC), and suppressed cell growth of A549 in vitro. Then A549 cells were subcutaneously injected into nude mice, and these tumor-bearing mice were immunized with IL-24, IL-24-iRGD or PBS via the tail vein. The IL-24 and IL-24-iRGD-treated groups exhibited tumor growth inhibition rates of 26.2% and 59.1%, respectively, when compared with the PBS-treated group. Protein penetration into tumors was analyzed by immunofluorescence, cell apoptosis was examined by TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling, and the expression of cleaved caspase-3 was analyzed by immuno-histochemical staining. The results demonstrated that IL-24-iRGD induced apoptosis and inhibited the growth of A549 cells to a significantly greater extent when compared with IL-24 treatment alone. It may provide an improved strategy for antitumor therapy and the clinical treatment of NSCLC.

CYTL1 inhibits tumor metastasis with decreasing STAT3 phosphorylation

CYTL1 is a novel cytokine that was first identified in CD34⁺ hematopoietic cells. We previously prepared recombinant CYTL1 and verified that it chemoattracted human monocytes via the CCR2/ERK pathway. It has been reported that CYTL1 plays contradictory roles in neuroblastoma and lung cancer. We found that the expression level of CYTL1 was notably decreased and it was hypermethylated in various tumors, including breast and lung cancer, by bioinformatics analyses. After validating the expression of CYTL1 in lung cancer, we identified that CYTL1 exerted no obvious effect on tumor cell proliferation but inhibited their migration and invasion, and these effects were accompanied by decreasing STAT3 phosphorylation, using recombinant CYTL1 and CYTL1-overexpressing tumor cell lines. Furthermore, we constructed experimental and spontaneous metastasis models of breast cancer in BALB/c mice and found that CYTL1 significantly inhibited tumor metastasis in vivo. In summary, CYTL1 is a cytokine with tumor-suppressing characteristics that inhibits tumor metastasis and STAT3 phosphorylation in multiple types of tumors.

SDF-1/CXCR4 axis promotes the growth and sphere formation of hypoxic breast cancer SP cells by c-Jun/ABCG2 pathway

ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2 (ABCG2) confers to the major phenotypes of side population (SP) cells, the cancer stem-like cells. In this study, the SP cells displayed a distinctly higher ABCG2 expression level, sphere formation efficiency (SFE) and growth rate even under hypoxia condition. CXCR4 overexpression by pcDNA-CXCR4 transfection robustly increased ABCG2 expression, and promoted SFE and growth of hypoxic SP cells, while CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100 could suppress the promotion. Additionally, we found that CXCR4 promoted the expression of c-Jun, a major gene in the oncogenic JNK/c-Jun pathway. Our data on electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays both showed that c-Jun directly bound with the ABCG2 promoter sequence. Moreover, overexpression of JNK/c-Jun promoted ABCG2 expression, SFE, and growth of hypoxic SP cells and the promotion could be rescued by c-Jun inhibitor SP600125. In conclusion, CXCR4 increases the growth and SFE of breast cancer SP cells under hypoxia through c-Jun-mediated transcriptional activation of ABCG2.

Hesperidin suppresses the migration and invasion of non-small cell lung cancer cells by inhibiting the SDF-1/CXCR-4 pathway

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to investigate the ability of hesperidin to suppress the migration and invasion of A549 cells, and to investigate the role of the SDF-1/CXCR-4 cascade in this suppression.

METHODS

We performed a Transwell migration assay to measure the migratory capability of A549 cells treated with 0.5% DMSO, SDF-1α, AMD3100 or hesperidin. The SDF-1 level in the culture medium was determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect whether different concentrations of hesperidin affected SDF-1 secretion. A wound-healing assay was performed to determine the effects of different concentrations of hesperidin on the migration inhibition of A549, H460 and H1975 cells. Additionally, the effect of various hesperidin concentrations on the rate of A549 cell invasion and migration was examined with and without Matrigel in Transwell assays, respectively. Western blot analysis was used to evaluate the protein levels of CXCR-4, MMP-9, CK-19, Vimentin, p65, p-p65, p-IκB, IκB, p-Akt and Akt. RT-qPCR was used to detect the mRNA levels of CXCR-4, MMP-9, CK-19, Vimentin, p65, IκB, SDF-1 and Akt.

RESULTS

The Transwell migration assay indicated that SDF-1α promoted A549 cell migration, while AMD3100 and hesperidin significantly inhibited the migratory capability. The wound-healing assay demonstrated that hesperidin treatment significantly reduced the rate of wound closure compared with the control group in a dose-dependent manner. Similarly, the migration and invasive abilities of A549 cells, H460 and H1975 cells treated with hesperidin were significantly decreased compared with the control group. The ELISA data suggested that hesperidin attenuated the secretion of SDF-1 from A549 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, western blot analysis indicated that SDF-1α treatment significantly increased the levels of CXCR-4, p-p65, p-IκB and p-Akt in A549 cells. In contrast, AMD3100 or hesperidin reversed the effect induced by SDF-1α through decreasing the expression of CXCR-4. Subsequent RT-qPCR and western blot analyses also confirmed that hesperidin had a significant effect on the expression of EMT-related proteins, including MMP-9, CK-19 and Vimentin, in A549 cells.

CONCLUSION

In summary, we demonstrated that hesperidin inhibited the migratory and invasive capabilities of A549 human non-small cell lung cancer cells by the mediation of the SDF-1/CXCR-4 signaling cascade, thus providing the foundation for the development of hesperidin as a safer and more effective anticancer drug for non-small cell lung cancer.

Role of MDA-7/IL-24 a Multifunction Protein in Human Diseases

Subtraction hybridization identified genes displaying differential expression as metastatic human melanoma cells terminally differentiated and lost tumorigenic properties by treatment with recombinant fibroblast interferon and mezerein. This approach permitted cloning of multiple genes displaying enhanced expression when melanoma cells terminally differentiated, called melanoma differentiation associated (mda) genes. One mda gene, mda-7, has risen to the top of the list based on its relevance to cancer and now inflammation and other pathological states, which based on presence of a secretory sequence, chromosomal location, and an IL-10 signature motif has been named interleukin-24 (MDA-7/IL-24). Discovered in the early 1990s, MDA-7/IL-24 has proven to be a potent, near ubiquitous cancer suppressor gene capable of inducing cancer cell death through apoptosis and toxic autophagy in cancer cells in vitro and in preclinical animal models in vivo. In addition, MDA-7/IL-24 embodied profound anticancer activity in a Phase I/II clinical trial following direct injection with an adenovirus (Ad.mda-7; INGN-241) in tumors in patients with advanced cancers. In multiple independent studies, MDA-7/IL-24 has been implicated in many pathological states involving inflammation and may play a role in inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, cardiovascular disease, rheumatoid arthritis, tuberculosis, and viral infection. This review provides an up-to-date review on the multifunctional gene mda-7/IL-24, which may hold potential for the therapy of not only cancer, but also other pathological states.

IL-24 modulates the high mobility group (HMG) A1/miR222 /AKT signaling in lung cancer cells

Interleukin (IL)-24, a novel tumor suppressor/cytokine exhibits antitumor activity against a broad-spectrum of human cancer cells. In a recent study, we showed that IL-24 inhibited AKT in lung cancer cells. However, the molecular mechanism of AKT inhibition by IL-24 remains elusive.The high mobility group (HMG) A1 a member of the non-histone chromosomal proteins and commonly referred to as architectural transcription factor, regulates transcription of various genes involved in cell growth and survival. Overexpression of HMGA1 has been shown to be associated with tumor progression and metastasis in several cancers, including human lung cancer. A recent study demonstrated that HMGA1 activates AKT function by reducing the activity of the protein phosphatase, phosphatase 2A subunit B (PPP2R2A) via the oncogenic micro (mi) RNA-222. Based on this report we hypothesized that IL-24-mediated AKT inhibition involved the HMGA1/miR-222 axis.To test our hypothesis, in the present study we used a H1299 lung cancer cell line that expressed exogenous human IL-24 when induced with doxycycline (DOX). Induction of IL-24 expression in the tumor cells markedly reduced HMGA1 mRNA and protein levels. Using a mechanistic approach, we found that IL-24 reduced miR-222-3p and -5p levels, as determined by qRT-PCR. Associated with HMGA1 and miR-222 inhibition was a marked increase in PPP2R2A, with a concomitant decrease in phosphorylated AKTT308/S473 expression. SiRNA-mediated knockdown of HMGA1 in combination with IL-24 significantly reduced AKT T308/S473 protein expression and greatly reduced cell migration and invasion compared with individual treatments. Further combination of IL-24 and a miR-222-3p inhibitor significantly increased PPP2R2A expression.Our results demonstrate for the first time that IL-24 inhibits AKT via regulating the HMGA1/miR-222 signaling node in human lung cancer cells and acts as an effective tumor suppressor. Thus, a therapy combining IL-24 with HMGA1 siRNA or miR-222-3p inhibitor should present effective treatment of lung cancer.

NAC1 promotes the migration of prostate cancer cells and participates in osteoclastogenesis by negatively regulating IFNβ

Nucleus accumbens-associated protein 1 (NAC1), a transcriptional co-regulator, is overexpressed in advanced prostate cancer. However, the NAC1-regulated transcriptome has not been completely explored. In the present study, the functional silencing of NAC1 blocked the migration of prostate cancer cells and suppress osteoclastogenesis. The present study also determined that NAC1 was overexpressed in the highly aggressive prostate cancer cell lines PC-3, DU-145 and LNCaP. NAC1 small interfering RNA treatment of DU-145 cells decreased cell migration, but interestingly had no significant effects on cell proliferation. Furthermore, microarray analysis showed that a group of genes may be associated with the development of prostate cancer after NAC1 knockdown, including interferon-β (IFNβ), which is reported to be involved in osteoclastogenesis, an important factor affecting bone metastasis. The mechanisms of NAC1 function were further explored by co-culture studies using PC-3 and RAW264.7 osteoclast precursor cells, which demonstrated that silencing NAC1 downregulated the genes associated with the activation of osteoclasts. Furthermore, it was revealed that NAC1 had the ability to affect the release of IFNβ into the extracellular environment. Together, these findings indicated that NAC1 promoted cell migration, and that NAC1 may have a key role in osteoclastogenesis.

Recent Advances in Nanoparticle-Based Cancer Drug and Gene Delivery

Effective and safe delivery of anticancer agents is among the major challenges in cancer therapy. The majority of anticancer agents are toxic to normal cells, have poor bioavailability, and lack in vivo stability. Recent advancements in nanotechnology provide safe and efficient drug delivery systems for successful delivery of anticancer agents via nanoparticles. The physicochemical and functional properties of the nanoparticle vary for each of these anticancer agents, including chemotherapeutics, nucleic acid-based therapeutics, small molecule inhibitors, and photodynamic agents. The characteristics of the anticancer agents influence the design and development of nanoparticle carriers. This review focuses on strategies of nanoparticle-based drug delivery for various anticancer agents. Recent advancements in the field are also highlighted, with suitable examples from our own research efforts and from the literature.

miR-203a-3p.1 targets IL-24 to modulate hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth and metastasis

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common causes of cancer‐related death. Cytokines, including interleukin 24 (IL‐24), play an important role in HCC. IL‐24 inhibits HCC metastasis but the molecular mechanism by which this occurs is still unknown. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are regulators of cancers including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the role that miRNAs play in the regulation of IL‐24 in HCC is unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of regulation of IL‐24 by miR‐203a‐3p.1 on liver cancer cell proliferation and metastasis. IL‐24 mRNA and miR‐203a‐3p.1 were detected by real‐time RT‐PCR, and IL‐24 protein in the cell growth medium was measured by ELISA. A luciferase assay was used to verify that the IL‐24 gene was the target of miR‐203a‐3p.1. Cell survival ability was detected by the MTT assay and colony formation. Cell metastasis was assayed by the Transwell system. The results showed that IL‐24 could be down‐regulated by miR‐203a‐3p.1 in HCC cells and that miR‐203a‐3p.1 acted as an onco‐miRNA by targeting IL‐24. Inhibition of miR‐203a‐3p.1 in cells could lead to the reversal of HCC cell proliferation and metastasis. The study highlights a novel molecular interaction between miR‐203a‐3p.1 and IL‐24, which indicates that IL‐24 and miR‐203a‐3p.1 may constitute potential therapeutic targets for HCC.

Toxicogenomic responses of human alveolar epithelial cells to tungsten boride nanoparticles

During the recent years, microarray analysis of gene expression has become an inevitable tool for exploring toxicity of drugs and other chemicals on biological systems. Therefore, toxicogenomics is considered as a fruitful area for searching cellular pathways and mechanisms including cancer, immunological diseases, environmental responses, gene-gene interactions and chemical toxicity. In this work, we examined toxic effects of Tungsten Borides NPs on gene expression profiling of the human lung alveolar epithelial cells (HPAEpiC). In line with this purpose, a single crystal of tungsten boride (mixture of WB and W₂B) nanoparticles was synthesized by means of zone melting method, and characterized via using X-ray crystallography (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) techniques. Cell viability and cytotoxicity were determined by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl) 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), neutral red (NR) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release tests. The whole genome microarray expression analysis was performed to find out the effects of WB and W₂B NPs mixture on gene expression of the HPAEpiC cell culture. 123 of 40,000 gene probes were assigned to characterize expression profile for WB/W2B NPs exposure. According to results; 70 genes were up-regulated and 53 genes were down-regulated (≥2 fold change). For further investigations, these genes were functionally classified by using DAVID (The Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery) with gene ontology (GO) analysis. In the light of the data gained from this study, it could be concluded that the mixture of WB/W2B NPs can affect cytokine/chemokine metabolism, angiogenesis and prevent migration/invasion by activating various genes.

A new long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) is induced in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and down-regulates several anticancer and cell differentiation genes in mouse

Keratinocyte-derived cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is the most common metastatic skin cancer. Although some of the early events involved in this pathology have been identified, the subsequent steps leading to tumor development are poorly defined. We demonstrate here that the development of mouse tumors induced by the concomitant application of a carcinogen and a tumor promoter (7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), respectively) is associated with the up-regulation of a previously uncharacterized long noncoding RNA (lncRNA), termed AK144841. We found that AK144841 expression was absent from normal skin and was specifically stimulated in tumors and highly tumorigenic cells. We also found that AK144841 exists in two variants, one consisting of a large 2-kb transcript composed of four exons and one consisting of a 1.8-kb transcript lacking the second exon. Gain- and loss-of-function studies indicated that AK144841 mainly inhibited gene expression, specifically down-regulating the expression of genes of the late cornified envelope-1 (Lce1) family involved in epidermal terminal differentiation and of anticancer genes such as Cgref1, Brsk1, Basp1, Dusp5, Btg2, Anpep, Dhrs9, Stfa2, Tpm1, SerpinB2, Cpa4, Crct1, Cryab, Il24, Csf2, and Rgs16 Interestingly, the lack of the second exon significantly decreased AK144841's inhibitory effect on gene expression. We also noted that high AK144841 expression correlated with a low expression of the aforementioned genes and with the tumorigenic potential of cell lines. These findings suggest that AK144841 could contribute to the dedifferentiation program of tumor-forming keratinocytes and to molecular cascades leading to tumor development.

Targeting Cancer Stem Cells-A Renewed Therapeutic Paradigm

Metastasis is often accompanied by radio- and chemotherapeutic resistance to anticancer treatments and is the major cause of death in cancer patients. Better understanding of how cancer cells circumvent therapeutic insults and how disseminated cancer clones generate life-threatening metastases would therefore be paramount to the development of effective therapeutic approaches for clinical management of malignant disease. Mounting reports over the past two decades have provided evidence for the existence of a minor population of highly malignant cells within liquid and solid tumors, which are capable of self-renewing and of regenerating secondary growths with the heterogeneity of the primary tumors from which they derive. These cells, called tumor-initiating cells or cancer stem cells (CSCs) exhibit increased resistance to standard radio- and chemotherapies and appear to have mechanisms that enable them to evade immune surveillance. CSCs are therefore considered to be responsible for systemic residual disease after cancer therapy, as well as for disease relapse. How CSCs develop, the nature of the interactions they establish with their microenvironment, their phenotypic and functional characteristics, as well as their molecular dependencies have all taken center stage in cancer therapy. Indeed, improved understanding of CSC biology is critical to the development of important CSC-based anti-neoplastic approaches that have the potential to radically improve cancer management. Here, we summarize some of the most pertinent elements regarding CSC development and properties, and highlight some of the clinical modalities in current development as anti-CSC therapeutics.

TTCA: an R package for the identification of differentially expressed genes in time course microarray data

BACKGROUND

The analysis of microarray time series promises a deeper insight into the dynamics of the cellular response following stimulation. A common observation in this type of data is that some genes respond with quick, transient dynamics, while other genes change their expression slowly over time. The existing methods for detecting significant expression dynamics often fail when the expression dynamics show a large heterogeneity. Moreover, these methods often cannot cope with irregular and sparse measurements.

RESULTS

The method proposed here is specifically designed for the analysis of perturbation responses. It combines different scores to capture fast and transient dynamics as well as slow expression changes, and performs well in the presence of low replicate numbers and irregular sampling times. The results are given in the form of tables including links to figures showing the expression dynamics of the respective transcript. These allow to quickly recognise the relevance of detection, to identify possible false positives and to discriminate early and late changes in gene expression. An extension of the method allows the analysis of the expression dynamics of functional groups of genes, providing a quick overview of the cellular response. The performance of this package was tested on microarray data derived from lung cancer cells stimulated with epidermal growth factor (EGF).

CONCLUSION

Here we describe a new, efficient method for the analysis of sparse and heterogeneous time course data with high detection sensitivity and transparency. It is implemented as R package TTCA (transcript time course analysis) and can be installed from the Comprehensive R Archive Network, CRAN. The source code is provided with the Additional file 1.

Macrophages promote the growth and invasion of endometrial stromal cells by downregulating IL-24 in endometriosis

Macrophages play an important role in the origin and development of endometriosis. Estrogen promoted the growth of decidual stromal cells (DSCs) by downregulating the level of interleukin (IL)-24. The aim of this study was to clarify the role and mechanism of IL-24 and its receptors in the regulation of biological functions of endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) during endometriosis. The level of IL-24 and its receptors in endometrium was measured by immunohistochemistry.In vitroanalysis was used to measure the level of IL-24 and receptors and the biological behaviors of ESCs. Here, we found that the expression of IL-24 and its receptors (IL-20R1 and IL-20R2) in control endometrium was significantly higher than that in eutopic and ectopic endometrium of women with endometriosis. Recombinant human IL-24 (rhIL-24) significantly inhibited the viability of ESCs in a dosage-dependent manner. Conversely, blocking IL-24 with anti-IL-24 neutralizing antibody promoted ESCs viability. In addition, rhIL-24 could downregulate the invasiveness of ESCsin vitro. After co-culture, macrophages markedly reduced the expression of IL-24 and IL-20R1 in ESCs, but not IL-22R1. Moreover, macrophages significantly restricted the inhibitory effect of IL-24 on the viability, invasion, the proliferation relative gene Ki-67, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and cyclooxygenase2 (COX-2), and the stimulatory effect on the tumor metastasis suppressor gene CD82 in ESCs. These results indicate that the abnormally low level of IL-24 in ESCs possibly induced by macrophages may lead to the enhancement of ESCs’ proliferation and invasiveness and contribute to the development of endometriosis.

MDA7 combined with targeted attenuated Salmonella vector SL7207/pBud-VP3 inhibited growth of gastric cancer cells

BACKGROUND/AIM

To investigate the therapeutic effect of MDA7 combined with apoptin targeted attenuated Salmonella typhimurium vector SL7207/pBud-VP3 on gastric cancer cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MDA7 was inserted into pBud-VP3 using molecular cloning technology to obtain the eukaryotic expression plasmid pBud-VP3-MDA7 and it was transformed into attenuated Salmonella typhimurium SL7207 by high voltage electroporation to obtain SL7207/pBud-VP3-MDA7. Mice bearing a sarcoma of gastric cancer cells were treated with SL7207/pBud-VP3-MDA7 and the growth-suppressing effect was assessed by measurement of tumor volume. Western blot was used to identify the MDA7 expression products. IL-6, INF-γ, TNF-α and caspase-3, VEGF in tumor tissue were detected by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

SL7207/pBud-VP3-MDA7 was successfully constructed and expression of the protein MDA7 was identified in tumor tissue. SL7207/pBud-VP3-MDA7 significantly caused tumor inhibition and regression (p<0.05). The level of expression of cytokines IL-6, INF-γ, TNF-α in tumor tissue was significantly higher than in the other groups (p<0.05). The expression of caspase-3 was up-regulated and VEGF was down-regulated (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

This study shows that SL7207/pBud-VP3-MDA7 has inhibitory effect on the growth of gastric cancer cells. The mechanism involved is related to the promotion of tumor apoptosis, immunity regulation and inhibition of tumor blood vessels.

Folate receptor-targeted nanoparticle delivery of HuR-RNAi suppresses lung cancer cell proliferation and migration

BACKGROUND

Human antigen R (HuR) is an RNA binding protein that is overexpressed in many human cancers, including lung cancer, and has been shown to regulate the expression of several oncoproteins. Further, HuR overexpression in cancer cells has been associated with poor-prognosis and therapy resistance. Therefore, we hypothesized that targeted inhibition of HuR in cancer cells should suppress several HuR-regulated oncoproteins resulting in an effective anticancer efficacy. To test our hypothesis, in the present study we investigated the efficacy of folate receptor-α (FRA)-targeted DOTAP:Cholesterol lipid nanoparticles carrying HuR siRNA (HuR-FNP) against human lung cancer cells.

RESULTS

The therapeutic efficacy of HuR-FNP was tested in FRA overexpressing human H1299 lung cancer cell line and compared to normal lung fibroblast (CCD16) cells that had low to no FRA expression. Physico-chemical characterization studies showed HuR-FNP particle size was 303.3 nm in diameter and had a positive surface charge (+4.3 mV). Gel retardation and serum stability assays showed that the FNPs were efficiently protected siRNA from rapid degradation. FNP uptake was significantly higher in H1299 cells compared to CCD16 cells indicating a receptor-dose effect. The results of competitive inhibition studies in H1299 cells demonstrated that HuR-FNPs were efficiently internalized via FRA-mediated endocytosis. Biologic studies demonstrated HuR-FNP but not C-FNP (control siRNA) induced G1 phase cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in H1299 cells resulting in significant growth inhibition. Further, HuR-FNP exhibited significantly higher cytotoxicity against H1299 cells than it did against CCD16 cells. The reduction in H1299 cell viability was correlated with a marked decrease in HuR mRNA and protein expression. Further, reduced expression of HuR-regulated oncoproteins (cyclin D1, cyclin E, and Bcl-2) and increased p27 tumor suppressor protein were observed in HuR-FNP-treated H1299 cells but not in C-FNP-treated cells. Finally, cell migration was significantly inhibited in HuR-FNP-treated H1299 cells compared to C-FNP.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that HuR is a molecular target for lung cancer therapy and its suppression using HuR-FNP produced significant therapeutic efficacy in vitro.

Mechanism of Action and Applications of Interleukin 24 in Immunotherapy

Interleukin 24 (IL-24) is an important pleiotropic immunoregulatory cytokine, whose gene is located in human chromosome 1q32-33. IL-24's signaling pathways have diverse biological functions related to cell differentiation, proliferation, development, apoptosis, and inflammation, placing it at the center of an active area of research. IL-24 is well known for its apoptotic effect in cancer cells while having no such effect on normal cells. IL-24 can also be secreted by both immune and non-immune cells. Downstream effects of IL-24, after binding to the IL-20 receptor, can occur dependently or independently of the JAK/STAT signal transduction pathway, which is classically involved in cytokine-mediated activities. After exogenous addition of IL-24, apoptosis is induced in tumor cells independently of the JAK/STAT pathway. We have shown that IL-24 binds to Sigma 1 Receptor and this event induces endoplasmic reticulum stress, calcium mobilization, reactive oxygen species generation, p38MAPK activity, and ceramide production. Here we review IL-24's role in autoimmunity, infectious disease response, wound repair, and vascular disease. Detailed understanding of the pleiotropic roles of IL-24 signaling can assist in the selection of more accurate therapeutic approaches, as well as targeting of appropriate cell types in treatment strategy development, and ultimately achieve desired therapeutic effects.

Phosphorylation of interleukin (IL)-24 is required for mediating its anti-cancer activity

Interleukin (IL)-24 is a tumor suppressor/cytokine gene that undergoes post-translational modifications (PTMs). Glycosylation and ubiquitination are important for IL-24 protein stabilization and degradation respectively. Little is known about IL-24 protein phosphorylation and its role in IL-24-mediated anti-tumor activities. In this study we conducted molecular studies to determine whether IL-24 phosphorylation is important for IL-24-mediated anti-cancer activity.

Human H1299 lung tumor cell line that was stably transfected with a doxycycline (DOX)-inducible (Tet-on) plasmid vector carrying the cDNA of IL-24-wild-type (IL-24^wt) or IL-24 with all five phosphorylation sites replaced (IL-24^mt) was used in the present study. Inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, cell migration and invasion, and induction of G2/M cell cycle arrest was observed in DOX-induced IL-24^wt-expressing cells but not in IL-24^mt-expressing cells. Secretion of IL-24^mt protein was greatly reduced compared to IL-24^wt protein. Further, IL-24^wt and IL-24^mt proteins markedly differed in their subcellular organelle localization. IL-24^wt but not IL-24^mt inhibited the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. SiRNA-mediated AKT knockdown and overexpression of myristolyated AKT protein confirmed that IL-24^wt but not IL-24^mt mediated its anti-cancer activity by inhibiting the AKT signaling pathway.

Our results demonstrate that IL-24 phosphorylation is required for inhibiting the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and exerting its anti-cancer activities.

Effects of mannose-binding lectin on pulmonary gene expression and innate immune inflammatory response to ozone

Ozone is a common, potent oxidant pollutant in industrialized nations. Ozone exposure causes airway hyperreactivity, lung hyperpermeability, inflammation, and cell damage in humans and laboratory animals, and exposure to ozone has been associated with exacerbation of asthma, altered lung function, and mortality. The mechanisms of ozone-induced lung injury and differential susceptibility are not fully understood. Ozone-induced lung inflammation is mediated, in part, by the innate immune system. We hypothesized that mannose-binding lectin (MBL), an innate immunity serum protein, contributes to the proinflammatory events caused by ozone-mediated activation of the innate immune system. Wild-type (Mbl(+/+)) and MBL-deficient (Mbl(-/-)) mice were exposed to ozone (0.3 ppm) for up to 72 h, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was examined for inflammatory markers. Mean numbers of eosinophils and neutrophils and levels of the neutrophil attractants C-X-C motif chemokines 2 [Cxcl2 (major intrinsic protein 2)] and 5 [Cxcl5 (limb expression, LIX)] in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were significantly lower in Mbl(-/-) than Mbl(+/+) mice exposed to ozone. Using genome-wide mRNA microarray analyses, we identified significant differences in transcript response profiles and networks at baseline [e.g., nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 (NRF2)-mediated oxidative stress response] and after exposure (e.g., humoral immune response) between Mbl(+/+) and Mbl(-/-) mice. The microarray data were further analyzed to discover several informative differential response patterns and subsequent gene sets, including the antimicrobial response and the inflammatory response. We also used the lists of gene transcripts to search the LINCS L1000CDS(2) data sets to identify agents that are predicted to perturb ozone-induced changes in gene transcripts and inflammation. These novel findings demonstrate that targeted deletion of Mbl caused differential levels of inflammation-related gene sets at baseline and after exposure to ozone and significantly reduced pulmonary inflammation, thus indicating an important innate immunomodulatory role of the gene in this model.

Oncogenic roles and drug target of CXCR4/CXCL12 axis in lung cancer and cancer stem cell

Although the great progress has been made in diagnosis and therapeutic in lung cancer, it induces the most cancer death worldwide in both males and females. Chemokines, which have chemotactic abilities, contain up to 50 family members. By binding to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), holding seven-transmembrane domain, they function in immune cell trafficking and regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, activation, and migration, homing under both physiologic and pathologic conditions. The alpha-chemokine receptor CXCR4 for the alpha-chemokine stromal cell-derived-factor-1 (SDF-1) is most widely expressed by tumors. In addition to human tissues of the bone marrow, liver, adrenal glands, and brain, the CXC chemokine SDF-1 or CXCL12 is also highly expressed in lung cancer tissues and is associated with lung metastasis. Lung cancer cells have the capabilities to utilize and manipulate the CXCL12/CXCR system to benefit growth and distant spread. CXCL12/CXCR4 axis is a major culprit for lung cancer and has a crucial role in lung cancer initiation and progression by activating cancer stem cell. This review provides an evaluation of CXCL12/CXCR4 as the potential therapeutic target for lung cancers; it also focuses on the synergistic effects of inhibition of CXCL12/CXCR4 axis and immunotherapy as well as chemotherapy. Together, CXCL12/CXCR4 axis can be a potential therapeutic target for lung cancers and has additive effects with immunotherapy.

The IL-24 gene protects human umbilical vein endothelial cells against H₂O₂-induced injury and may be useful as a treatment for cardiovascular disease

The aim of the present study was to investigate the protective effects of interleukin-24 (IL-24) on hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced vascular endothelial injury and to examine the association between IL-24 and cardiovascular disease. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were exposed to increasing concentrations of H₂O₂ in the presence or absence of IL-24, which was introduced via Lipofectamine^® 2000-mediated transfection. The successful uptake of the IL-24 plasmid was confirmed by RT-PCR at 24 h post-transfection. The effects of H₂O₂ and IL-24 on the proliferation and migration of the HUVECs was determined using cell migration assays. Cell viability was determined using a Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). Apoptosis and the measurement of the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were determined by flow cytometry, and the levels of caspase-3, which is associated with apoptosis, were determined by western blot analysis. Real-time PCR and western blot analysis were also used to measure the levels of multiple cardiovascular disease-associated factors. In vivo experiments were also performed using a rat model of hypertension which was constructed by angiotensin II infusion using an osmotic pump. The mRNA and protein levels of IL-24 were measured in both the control and hypertensive rats; the effects of treatment with enalapril and nifedipine on the IL-24 levels were also examined. Our results revealed that IL-24 protected against the H₂O₂-mediated abnormal increase in HUVEC proliferation. IL-24 also antagonized H₂O₂ by reducing the content of ROS in the cells, thus decreasing cellular oxidative damage, improving the cellular survival rate, reducing apoptosis and decreasing the expression of cardiovascular disease-related factors. The results from our in vivo animal experiments revealed that IL-24 expression was lower in the hypertensive rats compared to the healthy controls. Additionally, the IL-24 levels increased following anti-hypertensive therapy. The findings of our study indicate that IL-24 protects against H₂O₂-mediated endothelial cell damage and may thus provide a novel therapeutic strategy for treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Tumor-targeted and pH-controlled delivery of doxorubicin using gold nanorods for lung cancer therapy

Background

In lung cancer, the efficacy of conventional chemotherapy is limited due to poor drug accumulation in tumors and nonspecific cytotoxicity. Resolving these issues will increase therapeutic efficacy.

Methods

GNR-Dox-Tf-NPs (gold nanorod-doxorubicin-transferrin-nanoparticles) were prepared by different chemical approaches. The efficacy of these nanoparticles was carried out by cell viability in lung cancer and primary coronary artery smooth muscle cells. The receptor-mediated endocytosis studies were done with human transferrin and desferrioxamine preincubation. The GNR-Dox-Tf nanoparticles induced apoptosis, and DNA damage studies were done by Western blot, H2AX foci, and comet assay.

Results

We developed and tested a gold nanorod-based multifunctional nanoparticle system (GNR-Dox-Tf-NP) that carries Dox conjugated to a pH-sensitive linker and is targeted to the transferrin receptor overexpressed in human lung cancer (A549, HCC827) cells. GNR-Dox-Tf-NP underwent physicochemical characterization, specificity assays, tumor uptake studies, and hyperspectral imaging. Biological studies demonstrated that transferrin receptor-mediated uptake of the GNR-Dox-Tf-NP by A549 and HCC827 cells produced increased DNA damage, apoptosis, and cell killing compared with nontargeted GNR-Dox-NP. GNR-Dox-Tf-NP-mediated cytotoxicity was greater (48% A549, 46% HCC827) than GNR-Dox-NP-mediated cytotoxicity (36% A549, 39% HCC827). Further, GNR-Dox-Tf-NP markedly reduced cytotoxicity in normal human coronary artery smooth muscle cells compared with free Dox.

Conclusion

Thus, GNR-Dox-Tf nanoparticles can selectively target and deliver Dox to lung tumor cells and alleviate free Dox-mediated toxicity to normal cells.