Structural Insight into and Mutational Analysis of Family 11 Xylanases: Implications for Mechanisms of Higher pH Catalytic Adaptation

Characterization of acidophilic cellulase with β-glucanase and xylanase activity from the rumen metagenome and in vitro evaluation of barley digestibility

In this study, RuCel143, an acidophilic GH5 cellulase endowed with β-glucanase and xylanase activity was identified from the rumen metagenome. Its hydrolytic efficacy was evaluated using barley in an in vitro simulation of monogastric digestion. Optimal activity for RuCel143's cellulase was observed at pH 3.5 and 40 °C, while for xylanase it was pH 4.0 and 50 °C. The cellulase exhibited strong pH tolerance, retaining 94.3 % of its initial activity after 4 h at pH 2.5. In contrast, xylanase activity increased by 80.7 % after 4 h at pH 8.0. RuCel143 exhibited good resistance to various ions and common inhibitors, with Cu2+ and Mn2+ enhancing the cellulase activity by 26.9 % and 95.6 % at 1 mM concentration, respectively. Mutation analysis involving Tyr162Ala, His235Ala, and Glu285Ala showed reduced activities to 67.4 %, 29.3 %, and 19.5 % of the wild type, respectively. Hydrolysis product analysis revealed that RuCel143 primarily produced cellobiose and xylopentaose from carboxymethyl cellulose sodium and wheat straw xylan. Comparative tests on barley, wheat, and wheat bran demonstrated RuCel143's superior performance on barley. Simulation results of in vitro monogastric digestion indicated that RuCel143 can increase the digestibility of barley from 52.6 % to 60.8 % and reduce the viscosity coefficient from 1.41 to 1.38. In summary, RuCel143 is an exceptionally acid-tolerant cellulase with both β-glucanase and xylanase activities, demonstrating unique enzymatic properties that could potentially be leveraged to improve the degradation of barley in monogastric animals.

Improvement the thermostability and specific activity of acidic xylanase PjxA from Penicillium janthinellum via rigid flexible sites

Acidic xylanase PjxA from Penicillium janthinellum MA21601, with good eosinophilic and enzymatic activity, is an excellent candidate for xylan degradation to achieve effective utilization of biomass materials. However, the low thermal stability of PjxA has become a major bottleneck in its application. In this study, the flexible sites of PjxA were identified and rigidified through computational simulations of structure and sequence analysis combined with folding free energy calculations. Finally, a combined mutase PjxA-DS was constructed by rational integration of the two single mutants S82N and D45N. Compared to PjxA, PjxA-DS showed a 115.11-fold longer half-life at 50 °C and a 2.02-fold higher specific enzyme activity. Computer simulation analysis showed that S82N and D45N acted synergistically to improve the thermostability of PjxA. The stabilization of the N-terminus and the active center of PjxA, the increase in surface positive charge and hydrophilicity are the main reasons for the improved thermostability and catalytic activity of PjxA. Rigidification of the flexible site is an effective method for improving the thermostability of enzymes, S82N and D45N can be used as effective targets for the thermostability engineering modification of GH11 acidic xylanase.

Clustered surface amino acid residues modulate the acid stability of GH10 xylanase in fungi

Acidic xylanases are widely used in industries such as biofuels, animal feeding, and fruit juice clarification due to their tolerance to acidic environments. However, the factors controlling their acid stability, especially in GH10 xylanases, are only partially understood. In this study, we identified a series of thermostable GH10 xylanases with optimal temperatures ranging from 70 to 90 °C, and among these, five enzymes (Xyn10C, Xyn10RE, Xyn10TC, Xyn10BS, and Xyn10PC) exhibited remarkable stability at pH 2.0. Our statistical analysis highlighted several factors contributing to the acid stability of GH10 xylanases, including electrostatic repulsion, π-π stacking, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals interactions. Furthermore, through mutagenesis studies, we uncovered that acid stability is influenced by a complex interplay of amino acid residues. The key amino acid sites determining the acid stability of GH10 xylanases were thus elucidated, mainly concentrated in two surface regions behind the enzyme active center. Notably, the critical residues associated with acid stability markedly enhanced Xyn10RE's thermostability by more than sixfold, indicating a potential acid-thermal interplay in GH10 xylanases. This study not only reported a series of valuable genes but also provided a range of modification targets for enhancing the acid stability of GH10 xylanases. KEY POINTS: • Five acid stable and thermostable GH10 xylanases were reported. • The key amino acid sites, mainly forming two enriched surface regions behind the enzyme active center, were identified responsible for acid stability of GH10 xylanases. • The finding revealed interactive amino acid sites, offering a pathway for synergistic enhancement of both acid stability and thermostability in GH10 xylanase modifications.

Strategies for tailoring pH performances of glycoside hydrolases

Glycoside hydrolases (GHs) exhibit high activity and stability under harsh conditions, such as high temperatures and extreme pHs, given their wide use in industrial biotechnology. However, strategies for improving the acidophilic and alkalophilic adaptations of GHs are poorly summarized due to the complexity of the mechanisms of these adaptations. This review not only highlights the adaptation mechanisms of acidophilic and alkalophilic GHs under extreme pH conditions, but also summarizes the recent advances in engineering the pH performances of GHs with a focus on four strategies of protein engineering, enzyme immobilization, chemical modification, and medium engineering (additives). The examples described here summarize the methods used in modulating the pH performances of GHs and indicate that methods integrated in different protein engineering techniques or methods are efficient to generate industrial biocatalysts with the desired pH performance and other adapted enzyme properties.

Characterization and engineering of two new GH9 and GH48 cellulases from a Bacillus pumilus isolated from Lake Bogoria

OBJECTIVES

To search for new alkaliphilic cellulases and to improve their efficiency on crystalline cellulose through molecular engineering RESULTS: Two novel cellulases, BpGH9 and BpGH48, from a Bacillus pumilus strain were identified, cloned and biochemically characterized. BpGH9 is a modular endocellulase belonging to the glycoside hydrolase 9 family (GH9), which contains a catalytic module (GH) and a carbohydrate-binding module belonging to class 3 and subclass c (CBM3c). This enzyme is extremely tolerant to high alkali pH and remains significantly active at pH 10. BpGH48 is an exocellulase, belonging to the glycoside hydrolase 48 family (GH48) and acts on the reducing end of oligo-β1,4 glucanes. A truncated form of BpGH9 and a chimeric fusion with an additional CBM3a module was constructed. The deletion of the CBM3c module results in a significant decline in the catalytic activity. However, fusion of CBM3a, although in a non native position, enhanced the activity of BpGH9 on crystalline cellulose.

CONCLUSIONS

A new alkaliphilic endocellulase BpGH9, was cloned and engineered as a fusion protein (CBM3a-BpGH9), which led to an improved activity on crystalline cellulose.

Deconstruction of plant biomass by a Cellulomonas strain isolated from an ultra-basic (lignin-stripping) spring

Plant material falling into the ultra-basic (pH 11.5-11.9) springs within The Cedars, an actively serpentinizing site in Sonoma County, California, is subject to conditions that mimic the industrial pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for biofuel production. We sought to obtain hemicellulolytic/cellulolytic bacteria from The Cedars springs that are capable of withstanding the extreme alkaline conditions wherein calcium hydroxide-rich water removes lignin, making cell wall polysaccharides more accessible to microorganisms and their enzymes. We enriched for such bacteria by adding plant debris from the springs into a synthetic alkaline medium with ground tissue of the biofuel crop switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) as the sole source of carbon. From the enrichment culture we isolated the facultative anaerobic bacterium Cellulomonas sp. strain FA1 (NBRC 114238), which tolerates high pH and catabolizes the major plant cell wall-associated polysaccharides cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose. Strain FA1 in monoculture colonized the plant material and degraded switchgrass at a faster rate than the community from which it was derived. Cells of strain FA1 could be acclimated through subculturing to grow at a maximal concentration of 13.4% ethanol. A strain FA1-encoded β-1, 4-endoxylanase expressed in E. coli was active at a broad pH range, displaying near maximal activity at pH 6-9. Discovery of this bacterium illustrates the value of extreme alkaline springs in the search for microorganisms with potential for consolidated bioprocessing of plant biomass to biofuels and other valuable bio-inspired products.

Simultaneous enhancement of barley β-amylase thermostability and catalytic activity by R115 and T387 residue sites mutation

OBJECTIVE

To simultaneously increase the thermostability and catalytic activity of barley β-amylase.

METHODS

The amino acid sequences of various barley β-amylases with different enzyme properties were aligned, two amino acid residues R115 and T387 were identified to be important for barley β-amylase properties. R115C and T387V were then generated using site-directed and saturation mutagenesis.

RESULTS

R115C and T387V mutants increased the enzyme catalytic activity and thermostability, respectively. After combinational mutagenesis, the T₅₀ value and t_(1/2,60^o_C) value of R115C/T387V mutant reached 59.4 °C and 48.8 min, which were 3.6 °C higher and 29.5 min longer than those of wild-type. The k_cat/K_m value of mutant R115C/T387V were 59.82/s·mM, which were 54.7% higher than that of wild-type. The increased surface hydrophobicity and newly formed strong hydrogen bonds and salt bridges might be responsible for the enzyme thermostability improvement while the two additional hydrogen bonds formed in the active center may lead to the catalytic property enhancement.

CONCLUSIONS

The mutant R115C/T387V showed high catalytic activity and thermostability indicating great potential for application in industry.

Tuning the pH profile of β-glucuronidase by rational site-directed mutagenesis for efficient transformation of glycyrrhizin

In this study, we aimed to shift the optimal pH of acidic β-glucuronidase from Aspergillus oryzae Li-3 (PGUS) to the neutral region by site-directed mutagenesis, thus allowing high efficient biotransformation of glycyrrhizin (GL) into glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) under higher pH where the solubility of GL could be greatly enhanced. Based on PGUS structure analysis, five critical aspartic acid and glutamic acid residues were replaced with arginine on the surface to generate a variant 5Rs with optimal pH shifting from 4.5 to 6.5. The catalytic efficiency (k_cat /K_m) value of 5Rs at pH 6.5 was 10.7-fold higher than that of PGUS wild-type at pH 6.5, even 1.4-fold higher than that of wild-type at pH 4.5. Molecular dynamics simulation was performed to explore the molecular mechanism for the shifted pH profile and enhanced pH stability of 5Rs.

Heterologous expression, purification and biochemical characterization of a new xylanase from Myceliophthora heterothallica F.2.1.4

Myceliophthora heterothallica is a thermophilic fungus potentially relevant for the production of enzymes involved in the degradation of plant biomass. A xylanase encoding gene of this species was identified by means of RT-PCR using primers designed based on a xylanase coding sequence (GH11) of the fungus M. thermophila. The obtained gene was ligated to the vector pET28a(+) and the construct was transformed into Escherichia coli cells. The recombinant xylanase (r-ec-XylMh) was heterologously expressed, and the highest activity was observed at 55 °C and pH 6. The enzyme stability was greater than 70% between pH 4.5 and 9.5 and the inclusion of glycerol (50%) resulted in a significant increase in thermostability. Under these conditions, the enzyme retained more than 50% residual activity when incubated at 65 °C for 1 h, and approximately 30% activity when incubated at 70 °C for the same period. The tested cations did not increase xylanolytic activity, and the enzyme indicated significant tolerance to several phenolic compounds after 24 h, as well as high specificity for xylan, with no activity for other substrates such as CMC (carboxymethylcellulose), Avicel, pNPX (p-nitrophenyl-β-D-xylopyranoside) and pNPA (p-nitrophenyl-α-L-arabinofuranoside), and is thus, of potential relevance in pulp bleaching.

Redesigning pH optimum of Geobacillus sp. TF16 endoxylanase through in silico designed DNA swapping strategy

Thermoalkaliphilic xylanases are highly desired and of great importance due to their vast potential in paper pulp and bleaching processes. Here, we report rapid, cost-effective, and result-oriented combinatorial potential of in silico DNA swapping strategy to engineer the pH optimum of industrially crucial enzymes, particularly engineering of Geobacillus sp. TF16 endoxylanase for alkaline environments. The 3D structures of Geobacillus sp. TF16 and donor Bacillus halodurans C-125 endoxylanases were firstly predicted, analyzed, and compared for their similarities before any in silico design of mutants. Reasonably, to improve its alkaline pH tolerance, the corresponding regions in Geobacillus sp.TF16 endoxylanase were further engineered by swapping with negatively-charged amino acid-rich regions from B. halodurans C-125 endoxylanase. Through only two of four in silico-designed mutants, the optimum pH of GeoTF16 endoxylanase was improved from 8.5 to 10.0. Moreover, as compared to GeoTF16 parental enzyme, both GeoInt3 and GeoInt4 mutants revealed (i) enhanced biobleaching performance, (ii) improved adaptability to alkaline conditions, and (iii) better activity for broader pH range. Unlike GeoTF16 losing activity at pH 11.0 completely, GeoInt4 retained 60% and 40% of its activity at pH 11.0 and 12.0, respectively. Thus, GeoInt4 stands out as a more competent biocatalyst that is suitable for alkaline environments of diverse industrial applications. The current study represents an efficient protein engineering strategy to adapt industrial catalysts to diverse processing conditions. Further comprehensive and fine-tuned research efforts may result in biotechnologically more promising outcomes.

Improvement of alkalophilicity of an alkaline xylanase Xyn11A-LC from Bacillus sp. SN5 by random mutation and Glu135 saturation mutagenesis

BACKGROUND

Family 11 alkaline xylanases have great potential economic applications in the pulp and paper industry. In this study, we would improve the alkalophilicity of family 11 alkaline xylanase Xyn11A-LC from Bacillus sp. SN5, for the better application in this field.

RESULTS

A random mutation library of Xyn11A-LC with about 10,000 clones was constructed by error-prone PCR. One mutant, M52-C10 (V116A and E135V), with improved alkalophilicity was obtained from the library. Site-directed mutation showed that the mutation E135V was responsible for the alkalophilicity of the mutant. The variant E135V shifted the optimum pH of the wild-type enzyme from 7.5 to 8.0. Compared to the relative activities of the wild type enzyme, those of the mutant E135V increased by 17.5, 18.9, 14.3 and 9.5 % at pH 8.5, 9.0, 9.5 and 10.0, respectively. Furthermore, Glu135 saturation mutagenesis showed that the only mutant to have better alkalophilicity than E135V was E135R. The optimal pH of the mutant E135R was 8.5, 1.0 pH units higher than that of the wild-type. In addition, compared to the wild-type enzyme, the mutations E135V and E135R increased the catalytic efficiency (k _cat/K _m) by 57 and 37 %, respectively. Structural analysis showed that the residue at position 135, located in the eight-residue loop on the protein surface, might improve the alkalophilicity and catalytic activity by the elimination of the negative charge and the formation of salt-bridge.

CONCLUSIONS

Mutants E135V and E135R with improved alkalophilicity were obtained by directed evolution and site saturation mutagenesis. The residue at position 135 in the eight-residue loop on the protein surface was found to play an important role in the pH activity profile of family 11 xylanases. This study provided alkalophilic mutants for application in bleaching process, and it was also helpful to understand the alkaline adaptation mechanism of family 11 xylanases.

Sequence homolog-based molecular engineering for shifting the enzymatic pH optimum

Cell-free synthetic biology system organizes multiple enzymes (parts) from different sources to implement unnatural catalytic functions. Highly adaption between the catalytic parts is crucial for building up efficient artificial biosynthetic systems. Protein engineering is a powerful technology to tailor various enzymatic properties including catalytic efficiency, substrate specificity, temperature adaptation and even achieve new catalytic functions. However, altering enzymatic pH optimum still remains a challenging task. In this study, we proposed a novel sequence homolog-based protein engineering strategy for shifting the enzymatic pH optimum based on statistical analyses of sequence-function relationship data of enzyme family. By two statistical procedures, artificial neural networks (ANNs) and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso), five amino acids in GH11 xylanase family were identified to be related to the evolution of enzymatic pH optimum. Site-directed mutagenesis of a thermophilic xylanase from Caldicellulosiruptor bescii revealed that four out of five mutations could alter the enzymatic pH optima toward acidic condition without compromising the catalytic activity and thermostability. Combination of the positive mutants resulted in the best mutant M31 that decreased its pH optimum for 1.5 units and showed increased catalytic activity at pH < 5.0 compared to the wild-type enzyme. Structure analysis revealed that all the mutations are distant from the active center, which may be difficult to be identified by conventional rational design strategy. Interestingly, the four mutation sites are clustered at a certain region of the enzyme, suggesting a potential "hot zone" for regulating the pH optima of xylanases. This study provides an efficient method of modulating enzymatic pH optima based on statistical sequence analyses, which can facilitate the design and optimization of suitable catalytic parts for the construction of complicated cell-free synthetic biology systems.