Captive Reptile Mortality Rates in the Home and Implications for the Wildlife Trade

Demography, commonly recorded disorders and mortality in chelonia under UK primary veterinary care: A VetCompass study

Little information has been published on the recorded disorders of pet chelonia. This cohort study aimed to report on demography, commonly recorded disorders and mortality recorded in chelonia under UK primary veterinary care in 2019. Electronic health records on a random sample of chelonia in VetCompass during 2019 were reviewed to extract species, recorded disorder and mortality data. Of 2,040 chelonia reviewed, 1,923 (94.26%) were recorded as tortoises, 74 (3.63%) terrapins and 43 (2.11%) turtles. Of the 811 (42.17%) tortoises with species information recorded, the most common species were Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) (311, 38.35%), Horsfield's tortoises (Testudo horsfieldii) (259, 31.94%) and Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoises (154, 18.99%). The most commonly recorded disorders were beak abnormalities (16.72%), overgrown nails (11.47%) and shell abnormalities (9.80%). The most common recorded causes of death were "disorder undiagnosed" (44.55%), dog bite (5.45%) and anorexia (3.96%). Of 178 deaths with age recorded, the median age at death was 7.32 years (IQR 2.50-15.14). Short temporal windows within the clinical records and often limited clinical workups were a frequent limitation to the precision of the recorded disorder terms. This is the largest study of chelonia to date. It has highlighted the most commonly recorded disorders of chelonia of which many are often linked to husbandry.

Chains of Commerce: A Comprehensive Review of Animal Welfare Impacts in the International Wildlife Trade

The commercial wildlife trade involves billions of animals each year, consumed for various purposes, including food, fashion, entertainment, traditional medicine, and pets. The experiences of the animals involved vary widely, with negative welfare states being commonplace. To highlight the broad scope of animal welfare impacts across the commercial wildlife trade, we present ten case studies featuring a range of species traded globally for different purposes: (1) Ball pythons captured and farmed to serve as pets; (2) Zebrafish captive bred to serve as pets; (3) African Grey Parrots taken from the wild for the pet industry; (4) Sharks de-finned for traditional medicine; (5) Pangolins hunted for traditional medicine; (6) Crickets farmed for food and feed; (7) Frogs wild-caught for the frog-leg trade; (8) Crocodilians killed for their skins; (9) Lions farmed and killed for tourism; and (10) Elephants held captive for tourism. The case studies demonstrate that wild animals commercially traded can suffer from negative welfare states ranging from chronic stress and depression to frustration and extreme hunger. The individuals involved range from hundreds to billions, and their suffering can last a lifetime. Given the welfare issues identified and the growing recognition and scientific evidence for animal sentience, we propose reducing and redirecting consumer demand for these consumptive wildlife practices that negatively impact animals.

EVALUATION OF MORTALITY CAUSES AND PREVALENCE OF RENAL LESIONS IN ZOO-HOUSED CHAMELEONS: 2011-2022

Of the 202 species of Chamaeleonidae, 38.6% are globally threatened. Currently, nearly a thousand individual chameleons from 36 different species are kept in zoological institutions worldwide. The objectives of this study were to assess the main mortality causes of chameleons in zoological institutions, the prevalence of renal lesions at necropsy, and the environmental factors associated with renal lesions. An online survey was sent to 245 zoological institutions worldwide to collect information about species and sex distribution, necropsy results, and husbandry parameters. Necropsy reports of the last 10 yr were requested from participating institutions (n = 65) when available. Mortality causes were classified into three categories (open diagnosis, infectious, and noninfectious), and noninfectious causes were further subdivided into seven categories (renal, reproductive, myoarthroskeletal, digestive, ophthalmologic, denutrition/multisystemic, and neoplastic). The prevalence of renal lesions was recorded. Multiple linear regression models were used with the prevalence of renal diseases as the dependent variable, and exhibit minimum and maximum hygrometry; exhibit highest and coolest temperature; as well as minimum, mean, and maximum hygrometry of the geographical area as independent variables, combining all chameleon species with similar environmental requirements. Results were obtained for 14 species (n = 412 individuals). The main mortality causes were infectious (46.8%), noninfectious renal (11.4%), and noninfectious reproductive (10.7%) diseases, with all cases of fatal reproductive diseases reported in females. Of the individuals that underwent renal histopathology, 41.7% displayed renal lesions. There was a tendency towards higher renal lesion prevalence in zoos located in areas with lower mean hygrometry (P = 0.05). Further research studies about infectious, renal, and reproductive diseases of Chamaeleonidae are warranted.

A synthesis of wild animal-related trade laws in some of the world's most biodiverse countries

We examined the laws and legal provisions governing the commercial trade of terrestrial wild fauna across the trade chain in some of the world's megadiverse countries and how these relate to key animal welfare and conservation concerns. Over the past century, an increase in the quantity and complexity of laws related to commercial wildlife trade has been observed in the 11 focal countries examined. Our review identified 95 laws with 560 provisions adopted since 1910 across these countries. Surprisingly, the level of biological diversity in a country does not correlate with the extent of legislation addressing wildlife trade. Moreover, legislation is unevenly distributed across different stages of the wildlife trade chain, with more provisions on extraction and transportation compared to captive management. Notably, animal welfare considerations are relatively underrepresented in legislation related to wildlife trade, despite their broad implications for public health and economies. Urgent legislative action is needed to meet global biodiversity targets and respond to the challenges posed by the growing scale and complexity of the wildlife trade. Recommendations are made to streamline legislation, consider the legal status of wild animals, and address gaps in enforcement mechanisms. We conclude that alignment of national and international regulations is crucial for the effective protection of both wild animal populations and individual animals' welfare in the context of commercial trade. Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of existing laws, bridge legal gaps, and address diverse concerns related to wildlife trade, including public health and the rights of local communities.

Keeping reptiles as pets in Brazil: keepers' motivations and husbandry practices

BACKGROUND

Reptiles are considered one of the most popular pets in the world and are often associated with an incorrect belief that they are simple, highly adaptable, and easy to keep animals when compared with other pets, such as dogs and cats. However, keeping reptiles as pets can pose several challenges in meeting their needs in a domestic setting, requiring specific conditions and effort to maintain their health, well-being, and survival.

METHODS

During 2015, using online semi-structured questionnaires applied to 719 Brazilian pet reptile keepers who participated in online groups of reptile breeders on the social network Facebook, this study aimed to identify Brazilian keepers' motivations for maintaining reptiles as pets, investigate their monthly expenses, and the husbandry practices for the maintenance, such as housing and feeding conditions, handling of the animal, health issues, and treatment provided.

RESULTS

We found multiple motivations for keeping reptiles as pets (mostly snakes, lizards, and chelonians), the main motivation being emotional reasons, followed by entertainment and convenience reasons. The great majority of keepers (69%) declared to spend less than or up to US$30 per month in maintaining their reptiles. Most reptiles were kept alone in terrarium/aquarium enclosures, with basic environmental complexity in terms of physical elements. Lizards and chelonians were fed with a few insect species, cultivated fruits and vegetables, while snakes were fed mainly with domestic rodents, rabbits, or birds. Keepers declared frequent cleaning of the enclosure, but inappropriately handled their animals directly with their hands, which might result in potential threats to human and reptile health and safety. Several diseases or injuries were mentioned and 55.6% of the keepers declared taking the reptile to the vet for treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our findings revealed several challenges that reptiles face when kept in domestic environments, including issues related to housing, nutrition, and healthcare. Even though keepers demonstrated positive feelings toward their pets, suggesting a positive relationship and a willingness to provide them with proper care, it seems that without the proper knowledge and awareness, reptiles may unintentionally be kept with poor husbandry. Addressing these challenges on husbandry practices is essential for improving reptiles' welfare and promoting a responsible pet ownership.

In vitro culture of reptile PGCS to preserve endangered species

Primordial germ cells (PGCs), are the source of gametes in vertebrates. There are similarities in the development of PGCs of reptiles with avian and mammalian species PGCs development. PGCs culture has been performed for avian and mammalian species but there is no report for reptilian PGCs culture. In vitro culture of PGCs is needed to produce transgenic animals, preservation of endangered animals and for studies on cell behaviour and research on fertility. Reptiles are traded as exotic pets and a source of food and they are valuable for their skin and they are useful as model for medical research. Transgenic reptile has been suggested to be useful for pet industry and medical research. In this research different aspects of PGCs development was compared in three main classes of vertebrates including mammalian, avian and reptilian species. It is proposed that a discussion on similarities between reptilian PGCs development with avian and mammalian species helps to find clues for studies of reptilian PGCs development details and finding an efficient protocol for in vitro culture of reptilian PG.

Online classified adverts reflect the broader United Kingdom trade in turtles and tortoises rather than drive it

Online sales are increasingly a route by which exotic animals are sold in the global pet trade. There are numerous types of online platforms and transaction types, and dedicated classified advertisement sites are a popular means of buying and selling animals. Despite their large and increasing use, we have a relatively poor understanding of the number of, and taxonomic variation in, the animals sold online. This information may be key in efforts to optimise the welfare of the animals being sold, and the ethics and sustainability of the trade via that platform. To fill this knowledge gap, we monitored and analysed the advertisements of chelonians (turtles and tortoises) placed on one of the United Kingdom's largest dedicated classified ads sites, www.pets4homes.co.uk, over the course of a year, from July 2020 until June 2021. We analysed temporal, taxonomic, and advertiser related trends in the volumes of advertisements placed and compared the prices and the sentiment of language within adverts for different species. We found that the species advertised, the prices requested, and infrequent use of the site by most advertisers is consistent with most adverts being for animals being resold by casual users. Further, we found that turtles were consistently advertised for lower prices and in multiples than tortoises, and that the language with which they were advertised was less positive. We conclude that on this website the online trade reflects the broader trade, rather than drives the sales of chelonians in the UK, and that any interventions aiming to improve welfare and sustainability would be better placed earlier in the supply chain.

A Survey Study of Veterinary Student Opinions and Knowledge about Pet Reptiles and Their Welfare

Exotic pet medicine is rapidly evolving, with reptiles becoming increasingly popular pet animals. Yet, there are only a few literature reports on veterinary perception of reptiles kept as pets. The aim of the study was to assess opinions and knowledge of the Croatian veterinarians-to-be about pet reptiles and their welfare. The questionnaire survey was conducted in the academic year 2019-2020 and included students of all six years of the integrated undergraduate and graduate study at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb. First-year students were surveyed twice, before and after having attended the compulsory course on animal welfare. Questionnaire statements were 5-point Likert scale questions, requiring the students to express their opinions about turtles, lizards and snakes as pets, issues related to their welfare, risks they pose to the health and safety of humans, other animals and the environment, and their self-reported knowledge about pet reptiles. Although expressing higher opinions after having attended the course on animal welfare, first-year student responses remained neutral to most of the statements. Such a trend continued until the end of the study. Student responses revealed that they were uncertain about their knowledge of reptiles as pets, considering different educational areas observed. Study results emphasised the need of alterations in veterinary curriculum and additional student education in reptile medicine. The results obtained have broad implications involving not only the welfare of pet reptiles in clinical practice and elsewhere but also the health and safety of humans and other animals, as well as environmental protection.

Pet Reptiles-Are We Meeting Their Needs?

Simple Summary

Little is known about the ability of reptile owners to meet the needs of their pet animals. In this study, 220 pet reptile owners in Portugal reported their knowledge of reptile behaviors and the provision of essential husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge). Although two-thirds of respondents scored very good to excellent in terms of interpreting their pet reptile’s behaviors, 85% failed to provide at least one of the four husbandry needs. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by some respondents. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their lives. Despite this, none of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and a single respondent reported it as poor. We suggest that poor welfare and abnormal behaviors in pet reptiles have become accepted as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted. In particular, the predominant view, propelled by the exotic pet industry, that reptiles are low-maintenance pets needs to be actively refuted.

Abstract

The ability to meet the needs of each species in captivity is at the heart of the ethical debate on the acceptability of keeping reptiles and other animals as pets. Little is known about the ability of reptile owners to understand their pets’ behavior and to meet their welfare requirements. In this study, we surveyed pet reptile owners in Portugal (N = 220) to assess their behavioral knowledge and the provision of essential husbandry needs. Although two-thirds of respondents (68%) scored very good to excellent in terms of knowledge of their pet reptile’s behaviors, only 15% of respondents met four essential reptile husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge) and 43% met two or less. None of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and only a single respondent reported it as poor. Logistic regression model showed that while snake owners had fourteen times higher odds of reporting adequate husbandry provision, lizard owners had the highest odds of reporting good or very good welfare despite providing less of their animals’ basic husbandry needs. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their captive lives. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by up to one quarter of respondents. We suggest that the frequency of these behaviors in pet reptiles has led to their acceptance as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted.

Managing the Health of Captive Groups of Reptiles and Amphibians

Managing the health of reptile and amphibian collections is centered on providing appropriate environmental parameters, husbandry conditions, and nutrition as well as maintaining good welfare and careful collection planning. Disease transmission is reduced through quarantine, appropriate diagnostic testing, and annual veterinary health assessment."

Recommended Health Care and Disease-Prevention Programs for Herds/Flocks of Exotic Animals

Preventative health care is an essential part of the ownership and veterinary management of exotic animals. This article provides an overview of the current recommendations for health care and disease-prevention programs for herds or flocks of exotic animals, specifically companion and aviary birds, backyard poultry; snakes, lizards, chelonians, and amphibians; rabbits, ferrets, and common exotic small mammals. Husbandry practices, disease screening suggestions and techniques, and vaccination strategies, where appropriate, are reviewed.

Asking sensitive questions in conservation using Randomised Response Techniques

Conservation increasingly seeks knowledge of human behaviour. However, securing reliable data can be challenging, particularly if the behaviour is illegal or otherwise sensitive. Specialised questioning methods such as Randomised Response Techniques (RRTs) are increasingly used in conservation to provide greater anonymity, increase response rates, and reduce bias. A rich RRT literature exists, but successfully navigating it can be challenging. To help conservationists access this literature, we summarise the various RRT designs available and conduct a systematic review of empirical applications of RRTs within (n = 32), and beyond conservation (n = 66). Our results show increased application of RRTs in conservation since 2000. We compare the performance of RRTs against known prevalence of the sensitive behaviour and relative to other questioning techniques to assess how successful RRTs are at reducing bias (indicated by securing higher estimates). Findings suggest that RRT applications in conservation were less likely than those in other disciplines to provide prevalence estimates equal to, or higher than those derived from direct questions. Across all disciplines, we found reports of non-compliance with RRT instructions were common, but rarely accounted for in study design or analysis. For the first time, we provide conservationists considering RRTs with evidence on what works, and provide guidance on how to develop robust designs suitable for conservation research contexts. We highlight when alternate methods should be used, how to increase design efficiency and improve compliance with RRT instructions. We conclude RRTs are a useful tool, but their performance depends on careful design and implementation.

Attitudes and behaviour toward snakes on the part of Igbo people in southeastern Nigeria

Snakes play a crucial role in natural ecosystems, providing ecological services to people by decreasing rodent populations which may cause disease transmission and impair agricultural production. Despite these benefits, snakes are historically a target of persecution and negative attitudes across cultures, and many of them are threatened. Understanding the predictors of snake-human conflicts is essential to improve conservation efforts. We investigated the degree to which emotions, myth beliefs, experience with snakes (via exposure, bites, and knowledge of mortality from a snakebite), and education would predict attitudes toward snakes in a sample of southeastern Nigerian people. We further examined whether attitudes would predict intentional killing of snakes. Ordinal regression analyses revealed that fear, disgust, and belief in the myth that snakes are evil were related to low tolerance of snakes. More frequent encounters with snakes and higher education were associated with higher tolerance of snakes. Furthermore, higher tolerance of snakes was associated with a reduced likelihood of intentionally killing snakes, even when controlling for the influence of the other psychological and experiential variables. Wildlife management education interventions may be important to change attitudes and decrease intentional killing of snakes.

Using Google Trends to Determine Current, Past, and Future Trends in the Reptile Pet Trade

Reptiles are one of the most popular exotic pets in the world, with over a third of all described species currently being traded. However, the most commonly available reptiles are typically non-threatened, captive-bred, and/or domestically obtained, which means they are also largely unregulated and unmonitored, resulting in a large portion of the reptile pet trade remaining unknown. In this study, the past, current, and future trends of the most popular reptiles in the pet trade were examined. Google Trends was used to determine the global popularity of the most popular pets from 2004 to 2020 and compared to the results from an online survey sent to individuals involved in the reptile trade. The most popular pets from the previous five years were also compared globally across regions and countries. The results determined that the most popular reptile species during the last decade is by far bearded dragons, followed by ball pythons and leopard geckos. Although the survey results were similar when asked what the top reptiles were, most respondents named ball pythons as the most popular reptile. However, when asked what reptiles had lost the most popularity during the previous decade, the survey respondents named green iguanas, Burmese pythons, chameleons, red-eared sliders, and green anoles, concurring with what was found with Google Trends. The reptiles thought to be more popular in the upcoming decade by the survey participants were blue-tongued skinks, tegus, uromastyx, crested geckos, and ball pythons-most of which did indeed show an increase in popularity during the last decade, as indicated with Google Trends. The results from Google Trends demonstrated that ball pythons and crested geckos have increased their popularity more than any other reptile in the last two decades. Reptile popularity also differed between countries, with bearded dragons the most popular reptile in Australia, Western Europe, the U.S., and Canada. Leopard geckos were the most popular reptile in Italy and Turkey, and ball pythons were the reptile of choice in Mexico, Indonesia, and India. The general finding of this study is that the reptiles declining in popularity were mostly wild-caught or restricted due to regulations, while current and future species were captive-bred and available in many varieties or morphs. The most popular species were also docile, medium-sized, and easy to handle, with relatively simple care requirements. This study demonstrates that Google Trends can be a useful tool for determining relative popularity among reptiles, or any other pet group, with results closely mirroring those obtained through direct surveying of people involved in the pet trade. However, unlike surveys, this analysis is quick, quantifiable, and can show what is popular and in-demand not only at the global level but at much finer scales. Thus, Google Trends can be a valuable tool in many research applications, especially in topics that may otherwise be difficult to monitor and quantify.

Taking a lesson from the COVID-19 pandemic: Preventing the future outbreaks of viral zoonoses through a multi-faceted approach

The pandemic of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a significant burden to healthcare systems, economic crisis, and public fears. It is also a lesson to be learned and a call-to-action to minimize the risk of future viral pandemics and their associated challenges. The present paper outlines selected measures (i.e., monitoring and identification of novel viral agents in animals, limitations to wildlife trade, decreasing hunting activities, changes to mink farming and meat production), the implementation of which would decrease such a risk. The role of viral surveillance systems and research exploring the virus strains associated with different animal hosts is emphasized along with the need for stricter wild trade regulations and changes to hunting activities. Finally, the paper suggests modifications to the meat production system, particularly through the introduction of cultured meat that would not only decrease the risk of exposure to novel human viral pathogens but also strengthen food security and decrease the environmental impacts of food production.

Lifespan estimation in marine turtles using genomic promoter CpG density

Maximum lifespan for most animal species is difficult to define. This is challenging for wildlife management as it is critical for estimating important aspects of population biology such as mortality rate, population viability, and period of reproductive potential. Recently, it has been shown cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) density is predictive of maximum lifespan in vertebrates. This has made it possible to predict lifespan in long-lived species, which are generally the most intractable. In this study, we use gene promoter CpG density to predict the lifespan of five marine turtle species. Marine turtles are a particularly difficult group for lifespan estimation because of their migratory behaviour, longevity and high juvenile mortality rates, which all restrict individual tracking over their lifespan. Sanger sequencing was used to determine the CpG density in selected promoters. We predicted the lifespans for marine turtle species ranged from 50.4 years (flatback turtle, Natator depressus) to 90.4 years (leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea). These lifespan predictions have broad applications in marine turtle research such as better understanding life cycles and determining population viability.

Dropping the Ball? The Welfare of Ball Pythons Traded in the EU and North America

Ball pythons (family Pythonidae) remain a commonly exploited species, readily available for purchase in North America and Europe. We assessed the housing conditions of more than 5000 Ball pythons across six exotic pet expositions and 113 YouTube videos. We scored provisions for hygiene, mobility, shelter, substrate and water provision, based on the Royal Society for the Protection of Animals (RSPCA) minimum guidelines. We found most entities involved in this commercial enterprise are not providing housing conditions that meet the minimum welfare recommendations for Ball pythons, either publicly or privately. We found that breeders and vendors typically utilised small and highly restrictive enclosures, with dimensions that prevented occupants from extending their bodies to full and unrestricted natural length. Our study also highlights that most vendors are not providing adequate written husbandry guidance to potential consumers, either at exotic pet expositions, on their commercial website, or on associated social media pages. Furthermore, our study also indicates that most potential consumers may themselves be unable to recognise unsuitable housing conditions that do not meet minimum animal welfare standards for Ball pythons. We suggest that more consistent guidance, adherence to agree principles and more potent operating models that are formally incorporated into relevant legislation would greatly aid existing and future efforts to safeguard animal welfare in this regard.

Blind Trading: A Literature Review of Research Addressing the Welfare of Ball Pythons in the Exotic Pet Trade

Simple Summary

The Ball python is a small species that is commonly kept as an exotic pet across the world. Despite huge numbers of these snakes being kept and traded in the pet industry, there is very little information available about how catching, breeding, transporting and housing them in captivity could impact their welfare. Our study reviewed the published literature for this species and found 88 relevant peer-reviewed scientific papers. Physical health was the predominant focus of research, with numerous studies reporting on disease, injury or clinical treatments. Far fewer papers focused on other aspects of Ball python wellbeing, including behaviour, nutrition, environment or mental condition. We also found that very few studies focused on wellbeing prior to pet ownership, i.e., during the early stages of the trade chain when they are caught from the wild, transported, or bred in captivity. We recommend that more research is needed to assess the impact of the exotic pet trade on this species’ welfare. In particular, research on welfare conditions during capture and transportation of wild Ball pythons, and the potential effects of captive breeding, could help reduce suffering throughout the trade.

Abstract

Extensive numbers of Ball pythons are caught, bred, traded and subsequently kept in captivity across the world as part of the exotic pet industry. Despite their widespread availability as pets, relatively little is known about the potential welfare challenges affecting them. We reviewed the literature for research focused on the health and welfare of Ball pythons in the international pet trade. From a total of 88 articles returned from the search criteria, our analysis showed that very few actually focused on trade (10%) or animal welfare (17%). Instead, the majority (64%) of articles focused on veterinary science. There was a considerable bias towards physical health, with most studies neglecting the four other domains of animal welfare (behaviour, nutrition, environment and mental health). Furthermore, very few studies considered Ball pythons prior to resulting pet ownership, during wild capture and transportation or captive breeding operations. Our review demonstrates that our current understanding of welfare for Ball pythons traded as exotic pets is limited. We recommend that future research should focus on aspects of the industry that are currently overlooked, including the potential consequences of genetic selection during captive-breeding and the conditions provided for snakes prior to and during international transportation.

Life histories, demographies and population dynamics of three sympatric chameleon species (Furcifer spp.) from western Madagascar

The life histories and population dynamics of chameleons remain poorly known, most likely due to practical challenges related to their cryptic nature. However, several studies have indicated that some of these reptiles have unusually brief life histories. Specifically, one Madagascan chameleon (Furcifer labordi) was found to have an annual life cycle characterized by population-wide survival of the austral winter in the egg stage; a unique life history among tetrapods. In this study, we compare the life history of F. labordi with two locally sympatric congeners (F. cf. nicosiai and F. oustaleti) in Kirindy forest, western Madagascar, to determine how these species adjust their life histories to a highly seasonal and unpredictable climate. We found differences in lifespan, timing of hatching, growth rates, survival, reproductive rates, adult body size, and roosting heights among all three species. Moreover, two species exhibited relatively short lifespans: 6-9 months in F. labordi and 16-18 months in F. cf. nicosiai. In contrast, F. oustaleti is perennial and large-sized juveniles and adults aestivate during the dry season, but survival rates of adults seemed relatively low. Strikingly, the annual cohort of F. labordi was already adult when hatchlings of F. oustaleti and subsequently F. cf. nicosiai emerged. Our study suggests the co-existence of three different life histories with seasonal adjustment that might be related to the partitioning of overall food availability and contributes valuable life history data on enigmatic chameleon species.

An Assessment of Welfare Conditions in Wildlife Markets across Morocco

The welfare of wild-caught animals in markets has generally been overlooked by both wildlife trade and welfare studies, despite the potential negative impacts on the animals. Morocco is a member of the World Organisation for Animal Health and has proposed draft legislation prohibiting mistreatment or abuse of animals in captivity. There is still, however, a bustling wild animal trade, and vendor compliance with industry-standard best practices is lacking. This study provides insight into the conditions of 2113 wild-caught animals in markets in six of the largest cities in Morocco by scoring their welfare based on four of the Farm Animal Welfare Committee Five Freedoms: freedom from hunger and thirst, freedom from discomfort, freedom to express normal behavior, and freedom from distress. Over 88% of animals were housed in situations that broke all four of the freedoms measured, and only 9 animals were in situations that broke none. Access to water, sun/heat exposure, and ability to hide from stressors were particularly poor. We urge the Moroccan government to fulfill its commitment to establish welfare laws and devote resources to their application.

Nutrition and husbandry conditions of Palearctic tortoises (Testudo spp.) in captivity

Mediterranean and Russian tortoises (Testudo spp.) are popular companion animals (pets), despite ongoing controversy concerning privately keeping reptiles. The arguments used during these controversial discussions have often been based on outdated facts. Therefore, a survey was developed to evaluate the current population structure, husbandry conditions, diet regime, and health status of Testudo species in captivity. More than 75% of the 1075 respondents housed their tortoises in an outdoor enclosure containing a greenhouse or cold frame, which is considered the most species-appropriate way of husbandry. Of the respondents, 67.7% fed their tortoises with the optimum diet of more than 80% grasses and weeds during the summer vegetation period. Only 8.2% of respondents owned a tortoise with a diagnosed disease. According to the results, the likelihood of tortoises developing pyramidal growth syndrome, which can be used as an indicator of the quality of tortoise husbandry, was high in tortoises kept in a terrarium and/or fed a diet of less than 80% grasses and weeds in summer. This likelihood varied among species, with a higher incidence in Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni).

Aquarium Trade Supply-Chain Losses of Marine Invertebrates Originating from Papua New Guinea

A major difficulty in managing live organism wildlife trade is often the reliance on trade data to monitor exploitation of wild populations. Harvested organisms that die or are discarded before a point of sale are regularly not reported. For the global marine aquarium trade, identifying supply-chain losses is necessary to more accurately assess exploitation from trade data. We examined quality control rejections and mortality of marine invertebrates (Asteroidea, Gastropoda, Malacostraca, Ophiuroidea) moving through the Papua New Guinea marine aquarium supply-chain, from fisher to importer. Utilizing catch invoices and exporter mortality records we determined that, over a 160 day period, 38.6% of the total invertebrate catch (n = 13,299 individuals) was lost before export. Supply-chain losses were divided among invertebrates rejected in the quality control process (11.5%) and mortality of the accepted catch in transit to, and during holding at, an export facility (30.6%). A further 0.3% died during international transit to importers. We quantified supply-chain losses for the ten most fished species which accounted for 96.4% of the catch. Quality control rejections (n = 1533) were primarily explained by rejections of oversized invertebrates (83.2% of rejections). We suggest that enforceable size limits on species prone to size-based rejections and elimination of village-based holding of invertebrates would reduce losses along the Papua New Guinea supply-chain. This case study underscores that low mortality during international transit may mask large losses along supply-chains prior to export and exemplifies the limitations of trade data to accurately monitor exploitation.

Future of keeping pet reptiles and amphibians: towards integrating animal welfare, human health and environmental sustainability

The keeping of exotic pets is currently under debate and governments of several countries are increasingly exploring the regulation, or even the banning, of exotic pet keeping. Major concerns are issues of public health and safety, animal welfare and biodiversity conservation. The keeping of reptiles and amphibians in captivity encompasses all the potential issues identified with keeping exotic pets, and many of those relating to traditional domestic pets. Within the context of risks posed by pets in general, the authors argue for the responsible and sustainable keeping of reptile and amphibian pets by private persons, based on scientific evidence and on the authors' own expertise (veterinary medicine, captive husbandry, conservation biology).

ExNOTic: Should We Be Keeping Exotic Pets?

There has been a recent trend towards keeping non-traditional companion animals, also known as exotic pets. These pets include parrots, reptiles, amphibians and rabbits, as well as small species of rodent such as degus and guinea pigs. Many of these exotic pet species are not domesticated, and often have special requirements in captivity, which many owners do not have the facilities or knowledge to provide. Keeping animals in settings to which they are poorly adapted is a threat to their welfare. Additionally, owner satisfaction with the animal may be poor due to a misalignment of expectations, which further impacts on welfare, as it may lead to repeated rehoming or neglect. We investigate a range of commonly kept exotic species in terms of their suitability as companion animals from the point of view of animal welfare and owner satisfaction, and make recommendations on the suitability of various species as pets.