The Functional Significance of Posttranslational Modifications on Polo-Like Kinase 1 Revealed by Chemical Genetic Complementation

All intrinsically active Erk1/2 mutants autophosphorylate Threonine207/188, a plausible regulator of the TEY motif phosphorylation

The extracellular-activated kinases 1 & 2 (Erk1/2) are catalytically active when dually phosphorylated on a TEY motif located at the activation loop. In human patients with cardiac hypertrophy Erk1/2 are phosphorylated on yet another activation loop's residue, T207/188. Intrinsically active variants of Erk1/2, mutated at R84/65, are also (auto)phosphorylated on T207/188. It is not known whether T207/188 phosphorylation is restricted to these cases nor how it affects Erks' activity. We report that T207/188 phosphorylation is not rare, as we found that: 1) All known auto-activated Erk1/2 variants are phosphorylated on T207/188. 2) It occurs in various cell lines and mouse tissues. 3) It is extremely high in patients with skeletal muscle atrophies or myopathies. We propose that T207/188 controls the permissiveness of the TEY motif for phosphorylation because T207/188-mutated Erk1/2 and the yeast Erk/Mpk1 were efficiently dually phosphorylated when expressed in HEK293 or yeast cells, respectively. The T207/188-mutated Mpk1 was not TEY-phosphorylated in cells knocked out for MEKs, suggesting that its enhanced phosphorylation in wildtype cells is MEK-dependent. Thus, as T207/188-mutated Erk1/2 and Mpk1 recruit MEKs the role of T207/188 is to impede MEKs' ability to phosphorylate Erks. T207/188 also impedes autophosphorylation as recombinant Erk2 mutated at T188 is spontaneously autophosphorylated, although exclusively on Y185. The role of T207/188 in regulating activation loop phosphorylation may be common to most Ser/Thr kinases as 86% of them (in the human kinome) possess T207/188 orthologs, and 160 of them were already reported to be phosphorylated on this residue.

Chk2 sustains PLK1 activity in mitosis to ensure proper chromosome segregation

Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) protects against genome instability by ensuring timely and accurate mitotic cell division, and its activity is tightly regulated throughout the cell cycle. Although the pathways that initially activate PLK1 in G2 are well-characterized, the factors that directly regulate mitotic PLK1 remain poorly understood. Here, we identify that human PLK1 activity is sustained by the DNA damage response kinase Checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2) in mitosis. Chk2 directly phosphorylates PLK1 T210, a residue on its T-loop whose phosphorylation is essential for full PLK1 kinase activity. Loss of Chk2-dependent PLK1 activity causes increased mitotic errors, including chromosome misalignment, chromosome missegregation, and cytokinetic defects. Moreover, Chk2 deficiency increases sensitivity to PLK1 inhibitors, suggesting that Chk2 status may be an informative biomarker for PLK1 inhibitor efficacy. This work demonstrates that Chk2 sustains mitotic PLK1 activity and protects genome stability through discrete functions in interphase DNA damage repair and mitotic chromosome segregation.

Chk2 sustains PLK1 activity in mitosis to ensure proper chromosome segregation

Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) protects against genome instability by ensuring timely and accurate mitotic cell division. PLK1 activity is tightly regulated throughout the cell cycle. Although the pathways that initially activate PLK1 in G2 are well-characterized, the factors that directly regulate PLK1 in mitosis remain poorly understood. Here, we identify that human PLK1 activity is sustained by the DNA damage response kinase Checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2) in mitosis. Chk2 directly phosphorylates PLK1 T210, a residue on its T-loop whose phosphorylation is essential for full PLK1 kinase activity. Loss of Chk2-dependent PLK1 activity causes increased mitotic errors, including chromosome misalignment, chromosome missegregation, and cytokinetic defects. Moreover, Chk2 deficiency increases sensitivity to PLK1 inhibitors, suggesting that Chk2 status may be an informative biomarker for PLK1 inhibitor efficacy. This work demonstrates that Chk2 sustains mitotic PLK1 activity and protects genome stability through discrete functions in interphase DNA damage repair and mitotic chromosome segregation.

PLK1/NF-κB feedforward circuit antagonizes the mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase activity of PARP10 and facilitates HCC progression

Dysregulation of PARP10 has been implicated in various tumor types and plays a vital role in delaying hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression. However, the mechanisms controlling the expression and activity of PARP10 in HCC remain mostly unknown. The crosstalk between PLK1, PARP10, and NF-κB pathway in HCC was determined by performing different in vitro and in vivo assays, including mass spectrometry, kinase, MARylation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and luciferase reporter measurements. Functional examination was performed by using small chemical drug, cell culture, and mice HCC models. Correlation between PLK1, NF-κB, and PARP10 expression was determined by analyzing clinical samples of HCC patients with using immunohistochemistry. PLK1, an important regulator for cell mitosis, directly interacts with and phosphorylates PARP10 at T601. PARP10 phosphorylation at T601 significantly decreases its binding to NEMO and disrupts its inhibition to NEMO ubiquitination, thereby enhancing the transcription activity of NF-κB toward multiple target genes and promoting HCC development. In turn, NF-κB transcriptionally inhibits the PARP10 promoter activity and leads to its downregulation in HCC. Interestingly, PLK1 is mono-ADP-ribosylated by PARP10 and the MARylation of PLK1 significantly inhibits its kinase activity and oncogenic function in HCC. Clinically, the expression levels of PLK1 and phosphor-p65 show an inverse correlation with PARP10 expression in human HCC tissues. These findings are the first to uncover a PLK1/PARP10/NF-κB signaling circuit that underlies tumorigenesis and validate PLK1 inhibitors, alone or with NF-κB antagonists, as potential effective therapeutics for PARP10-expressing HCC.

Positive expression of basic transcription factor 3 predicts poor survival of colorectal cancer patients: possible mechanisms involved

Basic transcription factor 3 (BTF3) is associated with the development of several cancers. The aim of our study was to elucidate the role of BTF3 in colorectal cancer (CRC) tissues. CRC tissues or their paired adjacent noncancerous (ANCT) tissues were obtained from 90 patients who underwent operations in our hospital from November 2011 to December 2016, and then we implemented a gene microarray assay for detecting significant changes in gene expression and confirmed expression in tissues using immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR. We transfected or injected the silencing BTF3 (BTF3-siRNA) plasmid into cells and nude mice, and measured the tumorigenicity of CRC cells with flow cytometry and studied the expression level of BTF3 downstream genes (MAD2L2, MCM3 and PLK1) in CRC cells. BTF3 expression level was not only significantly higher in CRC tissue than in ANCT tissue (2.61 ± 0.07 vs 1.90 ± 0.03, P < 0.001) but BTF3-siRNA decreased tumor formation in a nude mice model. Furthermore, based on the data of gene microarray analysis, MAD2L2, MCM3 and PLK1 were detected as the downstream target genes of BTF3 and their expressions were positive related with BTF3 expression. Also, through transfecting BTF3-siRNA into HCT116 cells, we found that BTF3-siRNA could decrease cell viability and induced cell apoptosis and blocking the cell cycle. In conclusion, BTF3 is positively related to CRC and BTF3-siRNA attenuated the tumorigenicity of colorectal cancer cells via MAD2L2, MCM3 and PLK1 activity reduction.

Polo-like kinase 4 maintains centriolar satellite integrity by phosphorylation of centrosomal protein 131 (CEP131)

The centrosome, consisting of two centrioles surrounded by a dense network of proteins, is the microtubule-organizing center of animal cells. Polo-like kinase 4 (PLK4) is a Ser/Thr protein kinase and the master regulator of centriole duplication, but it may play additional roles in centrosome function. To identify additional proteins regulated by PLK4, we generated an RPE-1 human cell line with a genetically engineered "analog-sensitive" PLK4AS, which genetically encodes chemical sensitivity to competitive inhibition via a bulky ATP analog. We used this transgenic line in an unbiased multiplex phosphoproteomic screen. Several hits were identified and validated as direct PLK4 substrates by in vitro kinase assays. Among them, we confirmed Ser-78 in centrosomal protein 131 (CEP131, also known as AZI1) as a direct substrate of PLK4. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, we observed that although PLK4-mediated phosphorylation of Ser-78 is dispensable for CEP131 localization, ciliogenesis, and centriole duplication, it is essential for maintaining the integrity of centriolar satellites. We also found that PLK4 inhibition or use of a nonphosphorylatable CEP131 variant results in dispersed centriolar satellites. Moreover, replacement of endogenous WT CEP131 with an S78D phosphomimetic variant promoted aggregation of centriolar satellites. We conclude that PLK4 phosphorylates CEP131 at Ser-78 to maintain centriolar satellite integrity.

Aurora-PLK1 cascades as key signaling modules in the regulation of mitosis

Mitosis is controlled by reversible protein phosphorylation involving specific kinases and phosphatases. A handful of major mitotic protein kinases, such as the cyclin B-CDK1 complex, the Aurora kinases, and Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), cooperatively regulate distinct mitotic processes. Research has identified proteins and mechanisms that integrate these kinases into signaling cascades that guide essential mitotic events. These findings have important implications for our understanding of the mechanisms of mitotic regulation and may advance the development of novel antimitotic drugs. We review collected evidence that in vertebrates, the Aurora kinases serve as catalytic subunits of distinct complexes formed with the four scaffold proteins Bora, CEP192, INCENP, and TPX2, which we deem "core" Aurora cofactors. These complexes and the Aurora-PLK1 cascades organized by Bora, CEP192, and INCENP control crucial aspects of mitosis and all pathways of spindle assembly. We compare the mechanisms of Aurora activation in relation to the different spindle assembly pathways and draw a functional analogy between the CEP192 complex and the chromosomal passenger complex that may reflect the coevolution of centrosomes, kinetochores, and the actomyosin cleavage apparatus. We also analyze the roles and mechanisms of Aurora-PLK1 signaling in the cell and centrosome cycles and in the DNA damage response.

Centriole Overduplication is the Predominant Mechanism Leading to Centrosome Amplification in Melanoma

Centrosome amplification (CA) is common in cancer and can arise by centriole overduplication or by cell doubling events, including the failure of cell division and cell-cell fusion. To assess the relative contributions of these two mechanisms, the number of centrosomes with mature/mother centrioles was examined by immunofluorescence in a tissue microarray of human melanomas and benign nevi (n = 79 and 17, respectively). The centrosomal protein 170 (CEP170) was used to identify centrosomes with mature centrioles; this is expected to be present in most centrosomes with cell doubling, but on fewer centrosomes with overduplication. Using this method, it was determined that the majority of CA in melanoma can be attributed to centriole overduplication rather than cell doubling events. As Polo-like kinase 4 (PLK4) is the master regulator of centriole duplication, the hypothesis that PLK4 overexpression contributes to centriole overduplication was evaluated. PLK4 is significantly overexpressed in melanoma compared with benign nevi and in a panel of human melanoma cell lines (A375, Hs294T, G361, WM35, WM115, 451Lu, and SK-MEL-28) compared with normal human melanocytes. Interestingly, although PLK4 expression did not correlate with CA in most cases, treatment of melanoma cells with a selective small-molecule PLK4 inhibitor (centrinone B) significantly decreased cell proliferation. The antiproliferative effects of centrinone B were also accompanied by induction of apoptosis.Implications: This study demonstrates that centriole overduplication is the predominant mechanism leading to centrosome amplification in melanoma and that PLK4 should be further evaluated as a potential therapeutic target for melanoma treatment. Mol Cancer Res; 16(3); 517-27. ©2018 AACR.

ATP-competitive Plk1 inhibitors induce caspase 3-mediated Plk1 cleavage and activation in hematopoietic cell lines

Polo-like kinases (Plks) define a highly conserved family of Ser/Thr kinases with crucial roles in the regulation of cell division. Here we show that Plk1 is cleaved by caspase 3, but not by other caspases in different hematopoietic cell lines treated with competitive inhibitors of the ATP-binding pocket of Plk1. Intriguingly, Plk1 was not cleaved in cells treated with Rigosertib, a non-competitive inhibitor of Plk1, suggesting that binding of the inhibitor to the ATP binding pocket of Plk1 triggers a conformational change and unmasks a cryptic caspase 3 cleavage site on the protein. Cleavage occurs after Asp-404 in a DYSD/K sequence and separates the kinase domain from the two PBDs of Plk1. All Plk1 inhibitors triggered G2/M arrest, activation of caspases 2 and 3, polyploidy, multiple nuclei and mitotic catastrophe, albeit at higher concentrations in the case of Rigosertib. Upon BI-2536 treatment, Plk1 cleavage occurred only in the cytosolic fraction and cleaved Plk1 accumulated in this subcellular compartment. Importantly, the cleaved N-Terminal fragment of Plk1 exhibited a higher enzymatic activity than its non-cleaved counterpart and accumulated into the cytoplasm conversely to the full length and the C-Terminal Plk1 fragments that were found essentially into the nucleus. Finally, the DYSD/K cleavage site was highly conserved during evolution from c. elegans to human. In conclusion, we described herein for the first time a specific cleavage of Plk1 by caspase 3 following treatment of cancer cells with ATP-competitive inhibitors of Plk1.

PLK1 Activation in Late G2 Sets Up Commitment to Mitosis

Commitment to mitosis must be tightly coordinated with DNA replication to preserve genome integrity. While we have previously established that the timely activation of CyclinB1-Cdk1 in late G2 triggers mitotic entry, the upstream regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we report that Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) is required for entry into mitosis during an unperturbed cell cycle and is rapidly activated shortly before CyclinB1-Cdk1. We determine that Plk1 associates with the Cdc25C1 phosphatase and induces its phosphorylation before mitotic entry. Plk1-dependent Cdc25C1 phosphosites are sufficient to promote mitotic entry, even when Plk1 activity is inhibited. Furthermore, we find that activation of Plk1 during G2 relies on CyclinA2-Cdk activity levels. Our findings thus elucidate a critical role for Plk1 in CyclinB1-Cdk1 activation and mitotic entry and outline how CyclinA2-Cdk, an S-promoting factor, poises cells for commitment to mitosis.

The equilibrium of ubiquitination and deubiquitination at PLK1 regulates sister chromatid separation

PLK1 regulates almost every aspect of mitotic events, including mitotic entry, spindle assembly, chromosome alignment, sister chromatid segregation, metaphase-anaphase transition, cytokinesis, etc. In regulating the chromosome alignment and sister chromatid segregation, PLK1 has to be localized to and removed from kinetochores at the right times, and the underlying mechanism that regulates PLK1 both spatially and temporally only became clearer recently. It has been found that deubiquitination and ubiquitination of PLK1 are responsible for its localization to and dissociation from the kinetochores, respectively. The equilibrium of this ubiquitination and deubiquitination plays an important role in regulating proper chromosome alignment and timely sister chromatid segregation. Here, we summarize and discuss the recent findings in investigating the spatial and temporal regulation of PLK1 during chromosome alignment and sister chromatid segregation.

Mitotic phosphotyrosine network analysis reveals that tyrosine phosphorylation regulates Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1)

Tyrosine phosphorylation is closely associated with cell proliferation. During the cell cycle, serine and threonine phosphorylation plays the leading role, and such phosphorylation events are most dynamic during the mitotic phase of the cell cycle. However, mitotic phosphotyrosine is not well characterized. Although a few functionally-relevant mitotic phosphotyrosine sites have been characterized, evidence suggests that this modification may be more prevalent than previously appreciated. Here, we examined tyrosine phosphorylation in mitotic human cells including those on spindle-associated proteins.? Database mining confirmed ~2000 mitotic phosphotyrosine sites, and network analysis revealed a number of subnetworks that were enriched in tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins, including components of the kinetochore or spindle and SRC family kinases. We identified Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), a major signaling hub in the spindle subnetwork, as phosphorylated at the conserved Tyr217 in the kinase domain. Substitution of Tyr217 with a phosphomimetic residue eliminated PLK1 activity in vitro and in cells. Further analysis showed that Tyr217 phosphorylation reduced the phosphorylation of Thr210 in the activation loop, a phosphorylation event necessary for PLK1 activity. Our data indicate that mitotic tyrosine phosphorylation regulated a key serine/threonine kinase hub in mitotic cells and suggested that spatially separating tyrosine phosphorylation events can reveal previously unrecognized regulatory events and complexes associated with specific structures of the cell cycle.