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Vieites V, Ralph Y, Reeb-Sutherland B, Dick AS, Mattfeld AT, Pruden SM. Neurite density of the hippocampus is associated with trace eyeblink conditioning latency in 4- to 6-year-olds. Eur J Neurosci 2024; 59:358-369. [PMID: 38092417 PMCID: PMC10872972 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
Limited options exist to evaluate the development of hippocampal function in young children. Research has established that trace eyeblink conditioning (EBC) relies on a functional hippocampus. Hence, we set out to investigate whether trace EBC is linked to hippocampal structure, potentially serving as a valuable indicator of hippocampal development. Our study explored potential associations between individual differences in hippocampal volume and neurite density with trace EBC performance in young children. We used onset latency of conditioned responses (CR) and percentage of conditioned responses (% CR) as measures of hippocampal-dependent associative learning. Using a sample of typically developing children aged 4 to 6 years (N = 30; 14 girls; M = 5.70 years), participants underwent T1- and diffusion-weighted MRI scans and completed a 15-min trace eyeblink conditioning task conducted outside the MRI. % CR and CR onset latency were calculated based on all trials involving tone-puff presentations and tone-alone trials. Findings revealed a connection between greater left hippocampal neurite density and delayed CR onset latency. Children with higher neurite density in the left hippocampus tended to blink closer to the onset of the unconditioned stimulus, indicating that structural variations in the hippocampus were associated with more precise timing of conditioned responses. No other relationships were observed between hippocampal volume, cerebellum volume or neurite density, hippocampal white matter connectivity and any EBC measures. Preliminary results suggest that trace EBC may serve as a straightforward yet innovative approach for studying hippocampal development in young children and populations with atypical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Vieites
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Yvonne Ralph
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas, USA
| | | | - Anthony Steven Dick
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Aaron T Mattfeld
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Shannon M Pruden
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
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2
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Boele HJ, Jung C, Sherry S, Roggeveen LEM, Dijkhuizen S, Öhman J, Abraham E, Uvarov A, Boele CP, Gultig K, Rasmussen A, Vinueza-Veloz MF, Medina JF, Koekkoek SKE, De Zeeuw CI, Wang SSH. Accessible and reliable neurometric testing in humans using a smartphone platform. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22871. [PMID: 38129487 PMCID: PMC10739701 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49568-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Tests of human brain circuit function typically require fixed equipment in lab environments. We have developed a smartphone-based platform for neurometric testing. This platform, which uses AI models like computer vision, is optimized for at-home use and produces reproducible, robust results on a battery of tests, including eyeblink conditioning, prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle response, and startle habituation. This approach provides a scalable, universal resource for quantitative assays of central nervous system function.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Boele
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - C Jung
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton, USA
| | - S Sherry
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton, USA
| | - L E M Roggeveen
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - S Dijkhuizen
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Öhman
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - E Abraham
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton, USA
| | | | - C P Boele
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - K Gultig
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A Rasmussen
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - M F Vinueza-Veloz
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Community Medicine and Global Health, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - J F Medina
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, USA
| | - S K E Koekkoek
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - C I De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - S S-H Wang
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton, USA.
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3
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Etemadi L, Jirenhed DA, Rasmussen A. Effects of working memory load and CS-US intervals on delay eyeblink conditioning. NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2023; 8:16. [PMID: 37210441 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-023-00167-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Eyeblink conditioning is used in many species to study motor learning and make inferences about cerebellar function. However, the discrepancies in performance between humans and other species combined with evidence that volition and awareness can modulate learning suggest that eyeblink conditioning is not merely a passive form of learning that relies on only the cerebellum. Here we explored two ways to reduce the influence of volition and awareness on eyeblink conditioning: (1) using a short interstimulus interval, and (2) having participants do working memory tasks during the conditioning. Our results show that participants trained with short interstimulus intervals (150 ms and 250 ms) produce very few conditioned responses after 100 trials. Participants trained with a longer interstimulus interval (500 ms) who simultaneously did working memory tasks produced fewer conditioned responses than participants who watched a movie during the training. Our results suggest that having participants perform working memory tasks during eyeblink conditioning can be a viable strategy for studying cerebellar learning that is absent of influences from awareness and volition. This could enhance the comparability of the results obtained in human studies with those in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Etemadi
- Neural Basis of Sensorimotor Control, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund, Sweden
| | - Dan-Anders Jirenhed
- Associative Learning, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund, Sweden
| | - Anders Rasmussen
- Associative Learning, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund, Sweden.
- Erasmus Medical Center, Department of Neuroscience, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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4
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Oyaga MR, Serra I, Kurup D, Koekkoek SKE, Badura A. Delay eyeblink conditioning performance and brain-wide c-Fos expression in male and female mice. Open Biol 2023; 13:220121. [PMID: 37161289 PMCID: PMC10170203 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.220121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Delay eyeblink conditioning has been extensively used to study associative learning and the cerebellar circuits underlying this task have been largely identified. However, there is a little knowledge on how factors such as strain, sex and innate behaviour influence performance during this type of learning. In this study, we used male and female mice of C57BL/6J (B6) and B6CBAF1 strains to investigate the effect of sex, strain and locomotion in delay eyeblink conditioning. We performed a short and a long delay eyeblink conditioning paradigm and used a c-Fos immunostaining approach to explore the involvement of different brain areas in this task. We found that both B6 and B6CBAF1 females reach higher learning scores compared to males in the initial stages of learning. This sex-dependent difference was no longer present as the learning progressed. Moreover, we found a strong positive correlation between learning scores and voluntary locomotion irrespective of the training duration. c-Fos immunostainings after the short paradigm showed positive correlations between c-Fos expression and learning scores in the cerebellar cortex and brainstem, as well as previously unreported areas. By contrast, after the long paradigm, c-Fos expression was only significantly elevated in the brainstem. Taken together, we show that differences in voluntary locomotion and activity across brain areas correlate with performance in delay eyeblink conditioning across strains and sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Roa Oyaga
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, 3000 Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ines Serra
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, 3000 Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Devika Kurup
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, 3000 Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Aleksandra Badura
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, 3000 Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute of Neuroscience, Royal Dutch Academy for Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam 1105 BA, the Netherlands
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5
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Deficits in Cerebellum-Dependent Learning and Cerebellar Morphology in Male and Female BTBR Autism Model Mice. NEUROSCI 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/neurosci3040045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, there has been increased interest in the role of the cerebellum in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To better understand the pathophysiological role of the cerebellum in ASD, it is necessary to have a variety of mouse models that have face validity for cerebellar disruption in humans. Here, we add to the literature on the cerebellum in mouse models of autism with the characterization of the cerebellum in the idiopathic BTBR T + Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) inbred mouse strain, which has behavioral phenotypes that are reminiscent of ASD in patients. When we examined both male and female BTBR mice in comparison to C57BL/6J (C57) controls, we noted that both sexes of BTBR mice showed motor coordination deficits characteristic of cerebellar dysfunction, but only the male mice showed differences in delay eyeblink conditioning, a cerebellum-dependent learning task that is known to be disrupted in ASD patients. Both male and female BTBR mice showed considerable expansion of, and abnormal foliation in, the cerebellum vermis—including a significant expansion of specific lobules in the anterior cerebellum. In addition, we found a slight but significant decrease in Purkinje cell density in both male and female BTBR mice, irrespective of the lobule. Finally, there was a marked reduction of Purkinje cell dendritic spine density in both male and female BTBR mice. These findings suggest that, for the most part, the BTBR mouse model phenocopies many of the characteristics of the subpopulation of ASD patients that have a hypertrophic cerebellum. We discuss the significance of strain differences in the cerebellum as well as the importance of this first effort to identify both similarities and differences between male and female BTBR mice with regard to the cerebellum.
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Yun M, Kim E, Jung MW. Enhanced fear limits behavioral flexibility in Shank2-deficient mice. Mol Autism 2022; 13:40. [PMID: 36192805 PMCID: PMC9531513 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-022-00518-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A core symptom of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is repetitive and restrictive patterns of behavior. Cognitive inflexibility has been proposed as a potential basis for these symptoms of ASD. More generally, behavioral inflexibility has been proposed to underlie repetitive and restrictive behavior in ASD. Here, we investigated whether and how behavioral flexibility is compromised in a widely used animal model of ASD.
Methods We compared the behavioral performance of Shank2-knockout mice and wild-type littermates in reversal learning employing a probabilistic classical trace conditioning paradigm. A conditioned stimulus (odor) was paired with an unconditioned appetitive (water, 6 µl) or aversive (air puff) stimulus in a probabilistic manner. We also compared air puff-induced eye closure responses of Shank2-knockout and wild-type mice. Results Male, but not female, Shank2-knockout mice showed impaired reversal learning when the expected outcomes consisted of a water reward and a strong air puff. Moreover, male, but not female, Shank2-knockout mice showed stronger anticipatory eye closure responses to the air puff compared to wild-type littermates, raising the possibility that the impairment might reflect enhanced fear. In support of this contention, male Shank2-knockout mice showed intact reversal learning when the strong air puff was replaced with a mild air puff and when the expected outcomes consisted of only rewards. Limitations We examined behavioral flexibility in one behavioral task (reversal learning in a probabilistic classical trace conditioning paradigm) using one ASD mouse model (Shank2-knockout mice). Thus, future work is needed to clarify the extent to which our findings (that enhanced fear limits behavioral flexibility in ASD) can explain the behavioral inflexibility associated with ASD. Also, we examined only the relationship between fear and behavioral flexibility, leaving open the question of whether abnormalities in processes other than fear contribute to behavioral inflexibility in ASD. Finally, the neurobiological mechanisms linking Shank2-knockout and enhanced fear remain to be elucidated. Conclusions Our results indicate that enhanced fear suppresses reversal learning in the presence of an intact capability to learn cue-outcome contingency changes in Shank2-knockout mice. Our findings suggest that behavioral flexibility might be seriously limited by abnormal emotional responses in ASD. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13229-022-00518-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miru Yun
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, Korea.,Center for Synaptic Brain Dysfunctions, Institute for Basic Science, Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Eunjoon Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, Korea. .,Center for Synaptic Brain Dysfunctions, Institute for Basic Science, Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
| | - Min Whan Jung
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, Korea. .,Center for Synaptic Brain Dysfunctions, Institute for Basic Science, Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
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Sadnicka A, Rocchi L, Latorre A, Antelmi E, Teo J, Pareés I, Hoffland BS, Brock K, Kornysheva K, Edwards MJ, Bhatia KP, Rothwell JC. A Critical Investigation of Cerebellar Associative Learning in Isolated Dystonia. Mov Disord 2022; 37:1187-1192. [PMID: 35312111 PMCID: PMC9313805 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Objective Methods Results Conclusions
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Sadnicka
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
- Movement Disorders and Neuromodulation Group St. George's University of London London UK
| | - Lorenzo Rocchi
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health University of Cagliari Cagliari Italy
| | - Anna Latorre
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
| | - Elena Antelmi
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement University of Verona Verona Italy
| | - James Teo
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
- Department of Neurosciences Kings College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust London UK
| | - Isabel Pareés
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
- Movement Disorders Program, Neurology Department Hospital Ruber Internacional Madrid Spain
| | - Britt S. Hoffland
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
- Department of Neurology Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center Nijmegen the Netherlands
| | - Kristian Brock
- Cancer Research UK Clinical Trials Unit University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | | | - Mark J. Edwards
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
- Movement Disorders and Neuromodulation Group St. George's University of London London UK
| | - Kailash P. Bhatia
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
| | - John C. Rothwell
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences University College London London UK
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8
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Konrad C, Adolph D, Herbert JS, Neuhoff L, Mohr C, Jagusch-Poirier J, Seehagen S, Weigelt S, Schneider S. A New 3-Day Standardized Eyeblink Conditioning Protocol to Assess Extinction Learning From Infancy to Adulthood. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:135. [PMID: 32922270 PMCID: PMC7457038 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Associative learning can be observed from the neonatal period onward, providing opportunities to examine changes in basic learning and memory abilities. One method that is suitable to study associative learning is classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) which is dependent on the cerebellum. Extinction learning can be systematically investigated in this paradigm by varying the context during learning and extinction. Because of methodological difficulties and ethical challenges, no studies have compared extinction learning using EBC across human development. Our goal was to test feasibility of a 3-day delay EBC paradigm that can be used from infancy to adulthood. Acceptance/safety was tested especially for infancy by investigating attrition rates and parental report on infant wellbeing. On a paradigm side, we tested if the paradigm leads to successful acquisition and extinction. An air puff served as unconditional stimulus (US) and a tone as conditional stimulus (CS). On day 1 during acquisition, participants received 36 US–CS pairings in context A. On day 2, participants received 12 acquisition trials in context A to consolidate association learning, followed by 48 extinction trials (tone alone presentations) in context B. Renewal was assessed on day 3 and incorporated 12 CS alone trials presented in both the acquisition context and the extinction context. Eyeblink responses were videotaped and coded offline. The protocol was tested with 12–36-months-old infants (N = 72), adolescents (N = 8), and adults (N = 8). Concerning the acceptance/safety side, attrition ranged from 21 to 58% in infant samples due to the complex preparation of the children for the paradigm. However, attrition is equal to or lower than other infant learning paradigms. Parents of infant samples were very interested in the paradigm and reported low levels of infant stress, exhaustion, and negative feelings during the sessions. Data quality was very high, and no participant had to be excluded because of insufficient data. Concerning the paradigm side, participants showed successful acquisition and extinction as a group. The procedure is ethically sound, feasible, tolerated by many infants, and acceptable among parents. The data show successful acquisition and extinction rates, making the paradigm a valuable tool for investigating developmental changes in extinction learning over the lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Konrad
- Faculty of Psychology, Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Dirk Adolph
- Faculty of Psychology, Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Jane S Herbert
- Wollongong Infant Learning Lab, School of Psychology and Early Start, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Lina Neuhoff
- Faculty of Psychology, Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Cornelia Mohr
- Abteilung für Kinderschutz, Vestische Kinder- und Jugendklinik Datteln, Universität Witten/Herdecke, Datteln, Germany
| | - Julie Jagusch-Poirier
- Vision, Visual Impairments & Blindness, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Technical University, Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Sabine Seehagen
- Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sarah Weigelt
- Vision, Visual Impairments & Blindness, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Technical University, Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Silvia Schneider
- Faculty of Psychology, Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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9
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Abstract
Eyeblink conditioning, finger tapping, and prism adaptation are three tasks that have been linked to the cerebellum. Previous research suggests that these tasks recruit distinct but partially overlapping parts of the cerebellum, as well as different extra-cerebellar networks. However, the relationships between the performances on these tasks remain unclear. Here we tested eyeblink conditioning, finger tapping, and prism adaptation in 42 children and 44 adults and estimated the degree of correlation between the performance measures. The results show that performance on all three tasks improves with age in typically developing school-aged children. However, the correlations between the performance measures of the different tasks were consistently weak and without any consistent directions. This reinforces the view that eyeblink conditioning, finger tapping, and prism adaptation rely on distinct mechanisms. Consequently, performance on these tasks cannot be used separately to assess a common cerebellar function or to make general conclusions about cerebellar dysfunction. However, together, these three behavioral tasks have the potential to contribute to a nuanced picture of human cerebellar functions during development.
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10
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Foy JG, Foy MR. Dynamic Changes in EEG Power Spectral Densities During NIH-Toolbox Flanker, Dimensional Change Card Sort Test and Episodic Memory Tests in Young Adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:158. [PMID: 32508607 PMCID: PMC7248326 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Much is known about electroencephalograph (EEG) patterns during sleep, but until recently, it was difficult to study EEG patterns during conscious, awake behavior. Technological advances such as powerful wireless EEG systems have led to a renewed interest in EEG as a clinical and research tool for studying real-time changes in the brain. We report here the first normative study of EEG activity while healthy young adults completed a series of cognitive tests recently published by the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognitive Battery (NIH-TCB), a commonly-used standardized measure of cognition primarily used in clinical populations. In this preliminary study using a wireless EEG system, we examined power spectral density (PSD) in four EEG frequency bands. During baseline and cognitive testing, PSD activity for the lower frequency bands (theta and alpha) was greater, relative to the higher frequency bands (beta and gamma), suggesting participants were relaxed and mentally alert. Alpha, beta and gamma activity was increased during a memory test compared to two other, less demanding executive function tests. Gamma activity was also inversely correlated with performance on the memory test, consistent with the neural efficiency hypothesis which proposes that better cognitive performance may link with lower cortical energy consumption. In summary, our study suggests that cognitive performance is related to the dynamics of EEG activity in a normative young adult population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith G. Foy
- Department of Psychology, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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11
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Human sleep consolidates allergic responses conditioned to the environmental context of an allergen exposure. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:10983-10988. [PMID: 32366650 PMCID: PMC7245114 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1920564117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Allergies are highly prevalent, and allergic responses can be triggered even in the absence of allergens due to Pavlovian conditioning to a specific cue. Here we show in humans suffering from allergic rhinitis that merely reencountering the environmental context in which an allergen was administered a week earlier is sufficient to trigger an allergic response-but only if participants had slept after allergen exposure. This context-conditioning effect was entirely absent when participants stayed awake the night after allergen exposure or were tested in a different context. Unlike in context conditioning, cue conditioning (to an odor stimulus) occurred independently of sleep, a differential pattern that is likewise observed for conditioning in the behavioral domain. Our findings provide evidence that allergic responses can be conditioned to contextual information alone, even after only a single-trial conditioning procedure, and that sleep is necessary to consolidate this rapidly acquired maladaptive response. The results unravel a mechanism that could explain part of the strong psychological impact on allergic responses.
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12
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E Kızıltan M, Gündüz A. Late component of trigemino-cervical reflex: changes according to age and gender. Neurol Sci 2020; 41:1759-1764. [PMID: 32006124 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-020-04242-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trigemino-cervical reflex (TCR) is a protective reflex which is elicited by the stimulation of any branch of the trigeminal nerve. After infraorbital stimulation, an early and late components have been described. The aim of this study was to find out whether there are age- or gender-related changes in the long-latency (RII) component of TCR. METHOD We included consecutive 53 healthy subjects (20 men, 37.7%) who had normal neurological examination. The mean age was 45.1 ± 14.3 years (age range 18-75 years). TCR was recorded simultaneously from bilateral sternocleidomastoid (SCM) and splenius capitis (SC) muscles with surface electrodes after stimulating right or left infraorbital branch of the trigeminal nerve, separately. We compared latency, amplitude, and duration according to gender and age. RESULTS The amplitudes of SC responses were significantly higher in women compared to men. The duration of SCM response was significantly longer in subjects above the age of 50 years compared to younger patients. The latency of the SC response was significantly delayed above the age of 40 years. CONCLUSION There are age- and gender-related changes in TCRs probably due to changes in the motoneurons of the SC and SCM muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meral E Kızıltan
- Department of Neurology, Cerrahpaşa School of Medicine, IUC, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ayşegül Gündüz
- Department of Neurology, Cerrahpaşa School of Medicine, IUC, Istanbul, Turkey.
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13
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Prefrontal but not cerebellar tDCS attenuates renewal of extinguished conditioned eyeblink responses. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2019; 170:107137. [PMID: 31838223 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2019.107137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
An extended neural network is known to underlie extinction learning. As yet, comparatively little is known about the possible contribution of the cerebellum and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). In the present study, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) was used to provide further evidence that the dlPFC and the cerebellum are involved in extinction-related processes. A total of 100 young and healthy human participants were randomly assigned to one of five stimulation groups: (1) anodal tDCS of the cerebellum, (2) cathodal tDCS of the cerebellum, (3) anodal tDCS of the dlPFC, (4) cathodal tDCS of the dlPFC, and (5) sham stimulation. Participants underwent delay eyeblink conditioning using an A-B-A/B renewal paradigm. Two different colors of background light (orange and blue) were used as contexts. On day 1, acquisition of conditioned eyeblink responses was performed in context A, followed by extinction in context B. tDCS was applied during extinction. On day 2, extinction recall was tested in contexts A and B with higher incidence of conditioned responses in acquisition context A compared to extinction context B indicating renewal effects. All groups showed significant effects of acquisition of conditioned eyeblink responses and significant effects of extinction. There was no significant difference in extinction between stimulation groups. During extinction recall, renewal effects were present in all groups, except the group which had received anodal tDCS of the dlPFC during extinction. In the present study, no direct effects of dlPFC or cerebellar tDCS were demonstrated on extinction. Anodal tDCS of the dlPFC, but not the cerebellum, resulted in delayed effects on context-related processes of extinction, possibly explained by shifting attention away from the context and towards the conditioned stimulus during extinction learning. Anodal tDCS of the dlPFC attenuated context-related recall of learned aversive responses. Effects of tDCS, however, were weak and need to be confirmed in future studies. Lack of cerebellar tDCS effects do not exclude a possible role of the cerebellum in extinction-related processes, and are likely explained by methodological limitations of cerebellar tDCS.
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Vieites V, Pruden SM, Shusterman A, Reeb-Sutherland BC. Using hippocampal-dependent eyeblink conditioning to predict individual differences in spatial reorientation strategies in 3- to 6-year-olds. Dev Sci 2019; 23:e12867. [PMID: 31125469 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampus is a subcortical structure in the medial temporal lobe involved in cognitive functions such as spatial navigation and reorientation, episodic memory, and associative learning. While much is understood about the role of hippocampal function in learning and memory in adults, less is known about the relations between the hippocampus and the development of these cognitive skills in young children due to the limitations of using standard methods (e.g., MRI) to examine brain structure and function in developing populations. This study used hippocampal-dependent trace eyeblink conditioning (EBC) as a feasible approach to examine individual differences in hippocampal functioning as they relate to spatial reorientation and episodic memory performance in young children. Three- to six-year-old children (N = 50) completed tasks that measured EBC, spatial reorientation, and episodic memory, as well as non-hippocampal-dependent processing speed abilities. Results revealed that when age was held constant, individual differences in EBC performance were significantly related to individual differences in performance on the spatial reorientation test, but not on the episodic memory or processing speed tests. When the relations between hippocampal-dependent EBC and different reorientation strategies were explored, it was found that individual differences in hippocampal function predicted the use of geometric information for reorienting in space as opposed to a combined strategy that uses both geometric information and salient visual cues. The utilization of eyeblink conditioning to examine hippocampal function in young populations and its implications for understanding the dissociation between spatial reorientation and episodic memory development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Vieites
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
| | - Shannon M Pruden
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
| | - Anna Shusterman
- Department of Psychology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut
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15
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Kjell K, Löwgren K, Rasmussen A. A Longer Interstimulus Interval Yields Better Learning in Adults and Young Adolescents. Front Behav Neurosci 2018; 12:299. [PMID: 30559655 PMCID: PMC6286956 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Eyeblink conditioning is one of the most popular experimental paradigms for studying the neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory. A key parameter in eyeblink conditioning is the interstimulus interval (ISI), the time between the onset of the conditional stimulus (CS) and the onset of the unconditional stimulus (US). Though previous studies have examined how the ISI affects learning there is no clear consensus concerning which ISI is most effective and different researchers use different ISIs. Importantly, the brain undergoes changes throughout life with significant cerebellar growth in adolescents, which could mean that different ISIs might be called for in children, adolescents and adults. Moreover, the fact that animals are often trained with a shorter ISI than humans make direct comparisons problematic. In this study, we compared eyeblink conditioning in young adolescents aged 10-15 and adults using one short ISI (300 ms) and one long ISI (500 ms). The results demonstrate that young adolescents and adults produce a higher percentage of CRs when they are trained with a 500 ms ISI compared to a 300 ms ISI. The results also show that learning is better in the adults, especially for the shorter ISI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karolina Löwgren
- Logopedics, Phoniatrics and Audiology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- The Linnaeus Centre Thinking in Time: Cognition, Communication and Learning, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Anders Rasmussen
- The Linnaeus Centre Thinking in Time: Cognition, Communication and Learning, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Associative Learning, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Erasmus Medical Center, Department of Neuroscience, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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16
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Flaten MA, Bjørkedal E, Lyby PS, Figenschau Y, Aslaksen PM. Failure to Find a Conditioned Placebo Analgesic Response. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1198. [PMID: 30104988 PMCID: PMC6077950 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Associative learning has, in several studies, been modulated by the sex of the participant. Consistent with this, a recent review found that conditioned nocebo effects are stronger in females than in males. Purpose: It has been suggested that conditioned placebo responses are stronger in females, and this hypothesis was investigated in the present study. Cortisol and measures of negative emotions were taken to investigate if these processes could mediate any conditioned placebo effects. Methods: Cold pain was applied to the volar forearm. The Conditioned group received inert capsules prior to two presentations of less painful stimulations, to associate intake of the capsules with reduced pain. The pain control group received the same painful stimulation as the Conditioned group, but no capsules. The Capsule control group received the capsules in the same way as the Conditioned group, but no decrease in the painful stimulation. Participant sex was crossed across groups. It was hypothesized that in the Conditioned group, an expectation of reduced pain should be induced after administration of the capsules, and this should generate placebo analgesia, and mostly so in females. Results: The Conditioned group reported lower pain during conditioning, and rated the capsules as more effective painkillers than the capsule control group. However, placebo analgesia was not reliably observed in the Conditioned group. Conclusion: The placebo capsules were rated as effective painkillers, but this did not translate into a placebo analgesic effect. This could be due to violation of response expectancies, too few conditioning trials, and differences in pain ratings in the pre-test that could be due to previous experience with painkillers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magne A Flaten
- Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Espen Bjørkedal
- Department of Psychology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Peter S Lyby
- Department of Psychology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Yngve Figenschau
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Medical Biochemistry, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Per M Aslaksen
- Department of Psychology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
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17
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van der Vliet R, Jonker ZD, Louwen SC, Heuvelman M, de Vreede L, Ribbers GM, De Zeeuw CI, Donchin O, Selles RW, van der Geest JN, Frens MA. Cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation interacts with BDNF Val66Met in motor learning. Brain Stimul 2018; 11:759-771. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 03/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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18
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Schreurs BG, Smith-Bell C, Burhans LB. Sex differences in a rabbit eyeblink conditioning model of PTSD. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 155:519-527. [PMID: 29702205 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
We have developed a rabbit model of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which recapitulates several core features of PTSD, particularly hyperarousal and conditioned responding to trauma-associated cues. The work conducted with this model has all been done in male rabbits and, given sex differences in PTSD prevalence, it is important to expand our animal model of PTSD to include female rabbits to determine if they develop core features of PTSD, and if those core features can be treated. This is particularly important because, contrary to human studies, nearly all animal studies have found that males are consistently more vulnerable to various forms of acute and chronic stress than females. Using eyeblink conditioning in which we paired tone with a brief periorbital shock, we found that although both male and female rabbits acquired identical levels of conditioning, females showed more hyperarousal after conditioning but seemed to respond somewhat better to treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard G Schreurs
- Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, West Virginia University, United States; Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, West Virginia University, United States.
| | - Carrie Smith-Bell
- Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, West Virginia University, United States; Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, West Virginia University, United States
| | - Lauren B Burhans
- Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, West Virginia University, United States; Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, West Virginia University, United States
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19
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Cerebellar-dependent associative learning is impaired in very preterm born children and young adults. Sci Rep 2017; 7:18028. [PMID: 29269751 PMCID: PMC5740078 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18316-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Preterm birth incorporates an increased risk for cerebellar developmental disorders likely contributing to motor and cognitive abnormalities. Experimental evidence of cerebellar dysfunction in preterm subjects, however, is sparse. In this study, classical eyeblink conditioning was used as a marker of cerebellar dysfunction. Standard delay conditioning was investigated in 20 adults and 32 preschool children born very preterm. Focal lesions were excluded based on structural magnetic resonance imaging. For comparison, an equal number of matched term born healthy peers were tested. Subgroups of children (12 preterm, 12 controls) were retested. Preterm subjects acquired significantly less conditioned responses (CR) compared to controls with slower learning rates. A likely explanation for these findings is that preterm birth impedes function of the cerebellum even in the absence of focal cerebellar lesions. The present findings are consistent with the assumption that prematurity results in long-term detrimental effects on the integrity of the cerebellum. It cannot be excluded, however, that extra-cerebellar pathology contributed to the present findings.
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