Associations between serum leptin levels, hyperlipidemia, and cholelithiasis in dogs

The Hypolipidemic Characteristics of a Methanol Extract of Fermented Green Tea and Spore of Eurotium cristatum SXHBTBU1934 in Golden Hamsters

Fuzhuan brick tea (FBT), a distinctive Chinese dark tea with the predominant fungus of Eurotium cristatum, offered significant health benefits to Chinese people. In the current study, the in vivo bioactivities of E. cristatum (SXHBTBU1934) fermented green tea and spores of E. cristatum fermented on wheat were investigated, respectively. The methanol extract of fermented green tea and spore of E. cristatum both showed potent lipid-lowering activity in the blood of a high-fat diet induced hyperlipidemia model in golden hamsters and significantly reduced the accumulation of fat granules in the liver. These results indicated that the key active components were produced by E. cristatum. Chemical investigations suggested similar components in the two extracts and led to the identification of a new alkaloid, namely variecolorin P (1), along with four known structurally related compounds, (-)-neoechinulin A (2), neoechinulin D (3), variecolorin G (4), and echinulin (5). The structure of the new alkaloid was elucidated by HRESIMS, 1H, 13C, and 2D NMR analysis. The lipid-lowering activity of these compounds was evaluated using an oleic acid-induced HepG2 cell line model. Compound 1 significantly reduced the lipid accumulation in the HepG2 cell line with an IC50 value of 0.127 μM.

Novel insights into the pathogenic impact of diabetes on the gastrointestinal tract

Type 2 and type 1 diabetes are common endocrine disorders with a progressively increasing incidence worldwide. These chronic, systemic diseases have multiorgan implications, and the whole gastrointestinal (GI) tract represents a frequent target in terms of symptom appearance and interdependent pathophysiological mechanisms. Metabolic alterations linked with diabetic complications, neuropathy and disrupted hormone homeostasis can lead to upper and/or lower GI symptoms in up to 75% of diabetic patients, with multifactorial involvement of the oesophagus, stomach, upper and lower intestine, and of the gallbladder. On the other hand, altered gastrointestinal motility and/or secretions are able to affect glucose and lipid homeostasis in the short and long term. Finally, diabetes has been linked with increased cancer risk at different levels of the GI tract. The presence of GI symptoms and a comprehensive assessment of GI function should be carefully considered in the management of diabetic patients to avoid further complications and to ameliorate the quality of life. Additionally, the presence of gastrointestinal dysfunction should be adequately managed to improve metabolic homeostasis, the efficacy of antidiabetic treatments and secondary prevention strategies.

Roles of ursodeoxycholic acid in the bile biochemistry and metabolomics in patients with choledocholithiasis: a prospective study

INTRODUCTION

Recurrence after the endoscopic treatment of common bile duct stones (CBDS) is related to bile metabolism and bile compositions. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) has been proved effective in reducing the recurrence of CBDS. However, the detailed effects of UDCA on bile metabolism are still not extensively explored.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to analyze the role of UDCA in patients with choledocholithiasis (CDC) from the perspective of biochemistry and metabolomics.

METHODS

A total of 89 patients with CDC who underwent endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography were prospectively examined and randomly assigned to control and UDCA groups. The biochemical detections (cholesterol, bilirubin, and so on) were performed on the collected bile. Moreover, the metabolomics analysis was conducted based on bile from 20 patients in the UDCA group.

RESULTS

The bile levels of cholesterol and endotoxins significantly decreased after UDCA treatment. Regarding bile metabolomics, the levels of 25 metabolites changed significantly after UDCA treatment. The pathway enrichment analysis showed that the UDCA addition evoked a common response related to phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis; phenylalanine metabolism; arachidonic acid metabolism; and terpenoid backbone biosynthesis.

CONCLUSIONS

UDCA treatment within a short time interval (7 days) did not improve the circulating laboratory values in patients with CDC who had undergone endoscopy surgery. However, relevant decreases in the bile levels of cholesterol and endotoxin were observed. UDCA evoked a common response related to lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism, which probably reduced the bile level of cholesterol, protected hepatocytes, and corrected the abnormality of lipid metabolism caused by CDC.

Serum concentrations of leptin and adiponectin in dogs with chronic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

An imbalance in adipokines is associated with the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in humans. However, alterations in adipokines in dogs with CKD remain unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To examine whether adipokine concentrations in serum differ between healthy dogs and dogs with CKD and to determine the correlation between serum adipokine concentrations and CKD severity in dogs.

ANIMALS

Twenty dogs with CKD and 10 healthy dogs.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, serum concentrations of leptin, adiponectin, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-18, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were measured in healthy dogs and dogs with CKD, which were classified according to the International Renal Interest Society guidelines.

RESULTS

Serum leptin concentrations were positively correlated with systolic arterial blood pressure (r = .41), creatinine concentrations (r = .39), and symmetric dimethylarginine concentrations (r = .73). Serum adiponectin concentrations (median [range]) in CKD dogs with borderline or non-proteinuric (20.25 [14.9-45.8] ng/mL) were significantly higher than those in proteinuric CKD dogs (13.95 [6.4-22.1] ng/mL; P = .01). Serum IL-6 (median [range]; 43.27 [24.30-537.30] vs 25.63 [6.83-61.03] pg/mL; P = .02), IL-18 (median [range]; 25.98 [11.52-280.55] vs 10.77 [3.53-38.45] pg/mL; P = .01), and TNF-α (median [range]) concentrations (11.44 [8.54-38.45] vs 6.105 [3.97-30.68] pg/mL; P = .02) were significantly different between proteinuric and borderline or non-proteinuric CKD dogs.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

leptin and adiponectin concentrations in serum might be associated with severity of CKD and proteinuria in dogs with CKD, respectively.

Metabolomic serum abnormalities in dogs with hepatopathies

Hepatopathies can cause major metabolic abnormalities in humans and animals. This study examined differences in serum metabolomic parameters and patterns in left-over serum samples from dogs with either congenital portosystemic shunts (cPSS, n = 24) or high serum liver enzyme activities (HLEA, n = 25) compared to control dogs (n = 64). A validated targeted proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy platform was used to assess 123 parameters. Principal component analysis of the serum metabolome demonstrated distinct clustering among individuals in each group, with the cluster of HLEA being broader compared to the other groups, presumably due to the wider spectrum of hepatic diseases represented in these samples. While younger and older adult control dogs had very similar metabolomic patterns and clusters, there were changes in many metabolites in the hepatopathy groups. Higher phenylalanine and tyrosine concentrations, lower branched-chained amino acids (BCAAs) concentrations, and altered fatty acid parameters were seen in cPSS dogs compared to controls. In contrast, dogs with HLEA had increased concentrations of BCAAs, phenylalanine, and various lipoproteins. Machine learning based solely on the metabolomics data showed excellent group classification, potentially identifying a novel tool to differentiate hepatopathies. The observed changes in metabolic parameters could provide invaluable insight into the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and prognosis of hepatopathies.

Canine extrahepatic biliary disease: what have we learned?

Extrahepatic biliary disease in dogs is commonly encountered in clinical practice worldwide. Diseases in this segment of the biliary tract are diverse and can manifest with mild clinical signs or can be life-threatening. In the last decade there have been advances in diagnostic tests, imaging modalities and therapeutic interventions as well as the identification of novel prognostic variables that could improve outcomes in dogs with extrahepatic biliary disease. Therefore, the objective of this review was to summarise clinically relevant updates of extrahepatic biliary disease in dogs.

Clinical features and outcomes in 38 dogs with cholelithiasis receiving conservative or surgical management

Background

Ursodeoxycholic acid is used in human medicine for litholytic management of choleliths, but the efficacy of medical management in dogs with cholelithiasis is unknown.

Objectives

To describe the clinical features and outcomes of dogs with cholelithiasis, focusing on cases that received medical treatment, and to identify patient factors that influenced decision‐making for surgical or medical management.

Animals

Thirty‐eight dogs with cholelithiasis identified on abdominal ultrasonography (AUS).

Methods

Medical records of dogs with cholelithiasis on AUS between 2010 and 2019 were retrospectively reviewed. Cases were classified as symptomatic (n = 18) or incidental (n = 20) and divided into medically treated (n = 13), surgically treated (n = 10), and no treatment (n = 15) groups. Biochemical variables and cholelith location were compared between symptomatic and incidental groups using Mann‐Whitney U and chi‐squared tests, respectively. Survival times were compared using Kaplan‐Meier survival analysis.

Results

Symptomatic cases had higher alkaline phosphatase (P = .03), gamma‐glutamyl transferase (P = .03), and alanine transferase (P = .02) activities than did incidental cases. A higher proportion of symptomatic cases (44.4%) had choledocholithiasis than did incidental cases (0%; P = .003). Seventy percent of surgically managed dogs, 7.7% of medically managed dogs, and 0% of nontreated dogs had choledocholiths at presentation. Seventeen dogs had follow‐up AUS: cholelithiasis completely resolved in 4/8 medically treated, 5/7 of surgically treated, and 1/2 nontreated dogs. Median survival time was 457.4 days, with no significant difference between incidental and symptomatic dogs.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Medical treatment can be effective for management of cholelithiasis in dogs, with clinical presentation and cholelith location playing important roles in treatment decision‐making.

Changes in Serum Lipid Profiles among Canine Patients Suffering from Chronic Hepatitis

Hyperlipidemia is a risk factor for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in humans. However, the association between serum lipids and canine chronic hepatitis remains unknown. In this study, serum lipids, hepatic profiles, and hepatic ultrasound scores of healthy dogs and dogs with chronic hepatitis were evaluated. Serum triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in dogs with chronic hepatitis. There were 62.2% of dogs with chronic hepatitis accompanied by hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, or both. Positive correlations were observed between serum ALT and cholesterol (r = 0.8287, p < 0.01), serum ALP and cholesterol (r = 0.8436, p < 0.01), serum GGT and cholesterol (r = 0.5640, p < 0.01), serum bile acid and cholesterol (r = 0.3310, p < 0.01) and serum ALP and triglycerides (r = 0.2582, p < 0.05). No significant differences were found between ultrasound scores of diseased dogs with and without hypertriglyceridemia and diseased dogs with and without hypercholesterolemia. Canine chronic hepatitis is associated with hyperlipidemia. A significant positive association was identified between hyperlipidemia, especially hypercholesterolemia, liver enzymes, and bile acid concentration in dogs suffering from chronic hepatitis. The underlying mechanisms connecting hyperlipidemia and canine chronic hepatitis remain elusive.

Changes in the interstitial cells of Cajal in the gallbladder of guinea pigs fed a lithogenic diet

Cholesterol cholelithiasis is a common disease and gallbladder hypomotility may underlie its pathogenesis. Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) in the gallbladder serve vital roles in regulating gallbladder motility. The aim of the present study was to investigate changes in gallbladder ICCs during the development of cholesterol cholelithiasis. A total of 40 male guinea pigs were randomly assigned to four groups and fed a standard diet (SD) or lithogenic diet (LD) for 2 or 8 weeks. The LD significantly increased the total cholesterol levels in the serum and bile, as well as the serum levels of high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol after 2 and 8 weeks. The LD also significantly increased and decreased the number of gallbladder ICCs at 2 and 8 weeks, respectively, by regulating the stem cell factor/C-kit pathway. Moreover, the ultrastructure of gallbladder ICCs was significantly altered after 8 weeks, and the protein expression levels of connexin 43 in the gallbladder were differentially altered after 2 and 8 weeks. Finally, cholecystokinin receptor type A (CCK1R) expression in the gallbladder was assessed. In gallbladder ICCs, its expression was significantly increased and decreased after 2 and 8 weeks, respectively. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that the density, ultrastructure and CCK1R expression levels of gallbladder ICCs are differentially altered at various stages of cholesterol cholelithiasis progression, indicating that gallbladder ICCs may be considered a potential therapeutic target for treatment of cholesterol cholelithiasis.

Hepatocyte-derived canine familiaris-microRNAs as serum biomarkers of hepatic steatosis or fibrosis as implicated in the pathogenesis of canine cholecystolithiasis

BACKGROUND

Hepatic cholesterol accumulation in small breed dogs is a leading risk factor for hepatic fatty changes, gallbladder hypomotility, and cholelith development, which, if not discovered early, could lead to life-threatening choledocholithiasis and acute pancreatitis.

OBJECTIVE

This study proposed to assess the use of hepatocyte-derived canine familiaris (cfa)-microRNAs (miRNA-122, -34a, and -21) as new diagnostic serum biomarkers of liver steatosis or fibrosis, for which both processes have been implicated in canine cholecystolithiasis.

METHODS

Forty client-owned dogs diagnosed with cholecystolithiasis and hepatic steatosis (C+HS) or fibrosis (C+HF) based on ultrasonographic, biochemical, and histopathologic findings, and 20 healthy dogs used as controls were included in the study. Serum cfa-miRNA expression was determined using a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay.

RESULTS

Serum cfa-miRNA-122 and -34a expression was significantly upregulated in the C+HS (P < .001) and C+HF (P < .01) groups compared with the control group and showed a positive correlation with alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin (TBIL), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), total cholesterol (TC), and triglycerides (TG) levels in the C+HS group. Cfa-miRNA-122 and -34a expression discriminated the diseased groups from the control group better than traditional serum-derived liver biomarkers, as evidenced by areas under the receiver operating characteristic (AUC-ROC) curve of 0.99 and 0.97 for cfa-miRNA-122 expression in the C+HS and C+HF groups, and 1.0 and 0.96 for cfa-miRNA-34a in the C+HS and C+HF groups, respectively. Cfa-miRNA-21 expression was upregulated only in the C+HF group compared with the C+HS (P < .01) and control (P < .001) groups and showed a positive correlation with serum ALT, AST, TBIL, ALP, and GGT and negative correlation with serum TC and TG levels. Cfa-miRNA-21 expression could also differentiate the C+HF group from the control and C+HS groups with a diagnostic performance superior to that of the conventional serum biochemical variables as evidenced by AUCs of 1.0 and 0.98, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum cfa-miRNA-122, -34a, and -21 expression was significantly upregulated in dogs with cholecystolithiasis with hepatic steatosis or fibrosis compared with control dogs. These miRNAs could serve as novel biomarkers for hepatic steatosis or fibrosis, which have been implicated in the pathogenesis of cholecystolithiasis.

Roles of Adipokines in Digestive Diseases: Markers of Inflammation, Metabolic Alteration and Disease Progression

Adipose tissue is a highly dynamic endocrine tissue and constitutes a central node in the interorgan crosstalk network through adipokines, which cause pleiotropic effects, including the modulation of angiogenesis, metabolism, and inflammation. Specifically, digestive cancers grow anatomically near adipose tissue. During their interaction with cancer cells, adipocytes are reprogrammed into cancer-associated adipocytes and secrete adipokines to affect tumor cells. Moreover, the liver is the central metabolic hub. Adipose tissue and the liver cooperatively regulate whole-body energy homeostasis via adipokines. Obesity, the excessive accumulation of adipose tissue due to hyperplasia and hypertrophy, is currently considered a global epidemic and is related to low-grade systemic inflammation characterized by altered adipokine regulation. Obesity-related digestive diseases, including gastroesophageal reflux disease, Barrett’s esophagus, esophageal cancer, colon polyps and cancer, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, viral hepatitis-related diseases, cholelithiasis, gallbladder cancer, cholangiocarcinoma, pancreatic cancer, and diabetes, might cause specific alterations in adipokine profiles. These patterns and associated bases potentially contribute to the identification of prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic approaches for the associated digestive diseases. This review highlights important findings about altered adipokine profiles relevant to digestive diseases, including hepatic, pancreatic, gastrointestinal, and biliary tract diseases, with a perspective on clinical implications and mechanistic explorations.

The Trp64Arg polymorphism in β3 adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) gene is associated with adipokines and plasma lipids: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression

BACKGROUND

Recently, some studies claim that adipokines may modulate plasma lipids. More interestingly, the ADRB3 Trp64Arg polymorphism may regulate adipokines and play an essential role in lipids metabolism. This study aims to clarify the associations of ADRB3 Trp64Arg polymorphism with plasma adipokines and lipid levels.

METHODS

Twenty-two studies (5527 subjects) and 121 studies (54,059 subjects) were respectively identified for the association analyses of adipokines and lipids. Standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to estimate the strength of the Trp64Arg variant in adipokines and plasma lipids. All results were recalculated after eliminating the studies with heterogeneity.

RESULTS

The carriers of the C allele (Arg at 64th position was encoded by the C allele) had higher levels of leptin and lower levels of adiponectin than the non-carriers. The carriers of the C allele had higher levels of triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and lower levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) than the non-carriers. Subgroup analysis certified an ethnicity (Asians), disease status (obesity), and gender (females) specific association. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the analysis results were robust and stable. Meta-regression indicated that obesity was related to adiponectin.

CONCLUSIONS

The C allele carriers of Trp64Arg polymorphism had a slight but significant influence on lipid levels, and the remarkable effects specific existed in obese Asian women. The associations of Trp64Arg polymorphism with dyslipidemia may partly be mediated by the effect of this polymorphism on adipokines. The association of Trp64Arg polymorphism with obesity may partly be mediated by the effect of this polymorphism on adipokines. The C allele carriers had abnormal levels of adipokines and lipids, and it indicated that the Trp64Arg polymorphism might represent a genetic risk factor for coronary artery disease (CAD).

Association of Body Mass Index and Diet with Symptomatic Gall Stone Disease: A Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

Gall stone disease (GSD) is one of the commonest gastrointestinal disorders. Causative factors can be non-modifiable as genetics and modifiable like dietary habits. High-fat diet and high BMI are well known contributing factors world-over. Local and regional data is deficient about these factors. Moreover, Indo-Pakistani dietary patterns are very different from the western population. This study was conducted to see the association of high BMI and diet with GSD in our population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This case-control study was conducted in Shifa International Hospital, Islamabad, from 2012 to 2017. We included all female patients above 25 years of age with symptomatic gall stones on ultrasonography as cases and all females above 25 years of age with no gall stones on ultrasonography (done for any reason) as controls. The patients with gall stones having some other clear predisposing cause for gallstone formation, e.g., stoma, sudden weight loss, etc. were excluded. BMI, demographic details, dietary habits, and clinical profile of cases and controls were recorded. Data were analyzed by SPSS v 21. p-values were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 396 patients were included in this study, with 103 cases and 293 controls. The mean BMI of GSD cases was 27.576±5.753, while controls had a mean BMI of 25.638±7.008 (p=0.08). About 26.4% of cases had an average fat consumption greater than 100g/day as compared to 11.9% controls (p=0.035). The average red meat intake per week was 222g among cases while 210g among controls (p=0.001). The average intake of fried food per week was 270g among controls and 250g among cases (p=0.012). The average intake of bakery items per week was 240g among cases and 210g among controls (p=0.038).

CONCLUSION

Gall stone disease is significantly related to high BMI and high dietary fat and meat intake in our population.

Effect of probiotic Enterococcus faecium SF68 on liver function in healthy dogs

BACKGROUND

Probiotics are widely used in dogs but can be associated with alterations in some serum biochemistry test results.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effect of Enterococcus faecium SF68 administration for 14 days on serum alanine transferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in healthy dogs.

ANIMALS

Thirty-six healthy privately owned neutered dogs were randomly allocated, stratified by sex, to control or probiotic groups. Dogs were clinically healthy, with normal physical examination findings, blood, urine, and fecal analyses and ultrasonographic examinations.

METHOD

In this blinded, controlled study E. faecium SF68 was administered to the probiotic group for 14 days. Blood samples were taken from all dogs at days 0, 14, and 28. Serum ALT and ALP activity and total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations were determined on these 3 days.

RESULTS

The probiotic induced no significant changes in mean ALT and ALP activity. Mean cholesterol concentration did not change during probiotic administration but a significant decrease was seen on day 28 (P < .01). Mean triglyceride concentration increased progressively, becoming significant at day 28 (P < .05), with 1 dog developing hypertriglyceridemia.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

E. faecium SF68 would not create confusion when monitoring dogs with hepatobiliary disease because ALT and ALP activity did not change significantly. A significant decrease in cholesterol and significant increase in triglyceride concentrations were seen at day 28 but were not clinically relevant, with 1 dog showing hypertriglyceridemia. A longer trial is warranted to assess if the probiotic effects could be clinically relevant and to assess its potential use in hypertriglyceridemic dogs.

Relationship of serum leptin concentration with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism and cholestatic disease in dogs

OBJECTIVES

To measure serum leptin concentration in dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism and varying degrees of cholestatic disease and determine whether serum levels differed between dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism and those with gall bladder mucocoele.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Client-owned healthy dogs (n=20), dogs diagnosed with gall bladder mucocoele (n=20) and dogs diagnosed with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism (n=60) were enrolled. Only dogs of normal body condition score were included. Dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism were divided into three groups according to the severity of cholestatic disease: normal gall bladder (n=20), cholestasis (n=20) and gall bladder mucocoele (n=20). Serum leptin levels were measured using sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Serum concentrations of leptin were similar between dogs with gall bladder mucocoele and those with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism accompanied by gall bladder mucocoele; these concentrations were significantly higher than those in healthy control dogs. In dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism, circulating leptin concentration significantly increased with the severity of cholestasis: higher in the cholestasis group than the normal gall bladder group and higher in the gall bladder mucocoele group than the cholestasis group.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Elevated circulating leptin concentration was associated with canine pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism and gall bladder mucocoele. Homeostatic imbalance of leptin concentration might be associated with severity of cholestatic disease in pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism.

Changes in pre- and postoperative serum leptin concentrations in dogs with gallbladder mucocele and cholelithiasis

Background

Leptin has been shown to have various physiological and pathological roles in the canine gallbladder. In this study, we performed pre- and postoperative short-term follow-up analyses to confirm changes in serum leptin levels before and after cholecystectomy due to gallbladder mucocele (GBM) or cholelithiasis in dogs.

Results

Twenty-six cholecystectomized dogs (GBM: n = 14; cholelithiasis: n = 12) for prophylactic or clinical symptom relief were enrolled in the present study. Dogs were subgrouped according to clinical symptoms and prognosis after surgery as follows: 1) asymptomatic group (n = 13), 2) recovery group (n = 8), and 3) death group (n = 5). Liver enzymes, total bilirubin, lipid profiles, and leptin concentrations were determined from sera on the pre-operative day and at 1, 3, and 7 days postoperation. Serum leptin concentrations were gradually but significantly decreased in the asymptomatic group (p = 0.008, 0.004, and 0.004 on days 1, 3, and 7, respectively, compared with that before surgery) and the recovery group (p = 0.048 and 0.048 on days 3 and 7, respectively, compared with that before surgery). However, in the death group, leptin concentrations did not differ significantly over time (p = 0.564). Additionally, serum leptin levels in the recovery group (p = 0.006) and death group (p = 0.021) were significantly higher than those in the asymptomatic group. Liver enzymes and total bilirubin (T-Bil) were significantly decreased only in the recovery group, particularly on day 7. In the asymptomatic group, liver enzymes and T-Bil were not changed significantly over time, and in the death group, only T-Bil was significantly decreased on day 7. Total cholesterol and triglyceride levels were not significantly decreased over time in all groups.

Conclusions

These results indicate that leptin is a potential biomarker reflecting the severity and prognosis of GBM and cholelithiasis both before and after cholecystectomy in dogs.

Leptin and Immunological Profile in Obesity and Its Associated Diseases in Dogs

Growing scientific evidence has unveiled increased incidences of obesity in domestic animals and its influence on a plethora of associated disorders. Leptin, an adipokine regulating body fat mass, represents a key molecule in obesity, able to modulate immune responses and foster chronic inflammatory response in peripheral tissues. High levels of cytokines and inflammatory markers suggest an association between inflammatory state and obesity in dogs, highlighting the parallelism with humans. Canine obesity is a relevant disease always accompanied with several health conditions such as inflammation, immune-dysregulation, insulin resistance, pancreatitis, orthopaedic disorders, cardiovascular disease, and neoplasia. However, leptin involvement in many disease processes in veterinary medicine is poorly understood. Moreover, hyperleptinemia as well as leptin resistance occur with cardiac dysfunction as a consequence of altered cardiac mitochondrial metabolism in obese dogs. Similarly, leptin dysregulation seems to be involved in the pancreatitis pathophysiology. This review aims to examine literature concerning leptin and immunological status in obese dogs, in particular for the aspects related to obesity-associated diseases.