1
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Valeros J, Jerome M, Tseyang T, Vo P, Do T, Fajardo Palomino D, Grotehans N, Kunala M, Jerrett AE, Hathiramani NR, Mireku M, Magesh RY, Yenilmez B, Rosen PC, Mann JL, Myers JW, Kunchok T, Manning TL, Boercker LN, Carr PE, Munim MB, Lewis CA, Sabatini DM, Kelly M, Xie J, Czech MP, Gao G, Shepherd JN, Walker AK, Kim H, Watson EV, Spinelli JB. Rhodoquinone carries electrons in the mammalian electron transport chain. Cell 2025; 188:1084-1099.e27. [PMID: 39909039 PMCID: PMC11845293 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 08/19/2024] [Accepted: 12/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2025]
Abstract
Ubiquinone (UQ), the only known electron carrier in the mammalian electron transport chain (ETC), preferentially delivers electrons to the terminal electron acceptor oxygen (O2). In hypoxia, ubiquinol (UQH2) diverts these electrons onto fumarate instead. Here, we identify rhodoquinone (RQ), an electron carrier detected in mitochondria purified from certain mouse and human tissues that preferentially delivers electrons to fumarate through the reversal of succinate dehydrogenase, independent of environmental O2 levels. The RQ/fumarate ETC is strictly present in vivo and is undetectable in cultured mammalian cells. Using genetic and pharmacologic tools that reprogram the ETC from the UQ/O2 to the RQ/fumarate pathway, we establish that these distinct ETCs support unique programs of mitochondrial function and that RQ confers protection upon hypoxia exposure in vitro and in vivo. Thus, in discovering the presence of RQ in mammals, we unveil a tractable therapeutic strategy that exploits flexibility in the ETC to ameliorate hypoxia-related conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Valeros
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Madison Jerome
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Tenzin Tseyang
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Paula Vo
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Thang Do
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Diana Fajardo Palomino
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Nils Grotehans
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Manisha Kunala
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Alexandra E Jerrett
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Nicolai R Hathiramani
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Diabetes Center of Excellence, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Michael Mireku
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Rayna Y Magesh
- Department of Systems Biology, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Batuhan Yenilmez
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Paul C Rosen
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Jessica L Mann
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Jacob W Myers
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | | | - Tanner L Manning
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA 99258, USA
| | - Lily N Boercker
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA 99258, USA
| | - Paige E Carr
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA 99258, USA
| | | | - Caroline A Lewis
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - David M Sabatini
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo n. 2, 166 10 Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences Boston Branch, 840 Memorial Drive, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Mark Kelly
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Jun Xie
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Michael P Czech
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Diabetes Center of Excellence, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Guangping Gao
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Li Weibo Institute for Rare Disease Research, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA; Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Jennifer N Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA 99258, USA
| | - Amy K Walker
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Hahn Kim
- Small Molecule Screening Center, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Emma V Watson
- Diabetes Center of Excellence, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Jessica B Spinelli
- Program in Molecular Medicine, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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2
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Jumpathong J, Nishida I, Matsuo Y, Kaino T, Kawamukai M. Investigation and determination of CoQ10(H2) and CoQ10(H4) species from black yeast-like fungi and filamentous fungi. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2024; 89:110-123. [PMID: 39434708 DOI: 10.1093/bbb/zbae149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2024] [Accepted: 10/18/2024] [Indexed: 10/23/2024]
Abstract
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) or ubiquinone functions as an electron transporter in the electron transport system in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The isoprenyl side chain of CoQ is modified in some organisms, especially in fungi, for optimal electron transport performance under various conditions. In this study, we investigated the side chain saturated dihydro CoQ (CoQ10(H2)) in Aureobasidium pullulans EXF-150, Sydowia polyspora NBRC 30562, and naturally isolated Plowrightia sp. A37, all of which are melanized Dothideomycetes species within Ascomycota, and also in filamentous fungi Aspergillus oryzae and A. terreus. Plowrightia sp. A37 produced the rarely synthesized tetrahydro type CoQ10(H4), especially in glucose-rich medium, during extended cultivation in contrast to CoQ10(H2) in time-limited cultivation. Using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, we identified demethoxyubiquinone-H2 (DMQ(H2)) as an indicative intermediate that suggests that the side chain saturation of CoQ occurs after the formation of DMQ and not always in the last step as previously considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jomkwan Jumpathong
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
| | | | - Yasuhiro Matsuo
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Kaino
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
| | - Makoto Kawamukai
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
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3
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Comas-Ghierra R, Alshaheeb A, McReynolds MR, Shepherd JN, Salinas G. A Minimal Kynurenine Pathway Was Preserved for Rhodoquinone but Not for De Novo NAD + Biosynthesis in Parasitic Worms: The Essential Role of NAD + Rescue Pathways. Antioxid Redox Signal 2024; 40:737-750. [PMID: 37639366 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2023.0293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Aims: To determine the role of the kynurenine (KYN) pathway in rhodoquinone (RQ) and de novo NAD+ biosynthesis and whether NAD+ rescue pathways are essential in parasitic worms (helminths). Results: We demonstrate that RQ, the key electron transporter used by helminths under hypoxia, derives from the tryptophan (Trp) catabolism even in the presence of a minimal KYN pathway. We show that of the KYN pathway genes only the kynureninase and tryptophan/indoleamine dioxygenases are essential for RQ biosynthesis. Metabolic labeling with Trp revealed that the lack of the formamidase and kynurenine monooxygenase genes did not preclude RQ biosynthesis in the flatworm Mesocestoides corti. In contrast, a minimal KYN pathway prevented de novo NAD+ biosynthesis, as revealed by metabolic labeling in M. corti, which also lacks the 3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-dioxygenase gene. Our results indicate that most helminths depend solely on NAD+ rescue pathways, and some lineages rely exclusively on the nicotinamide salvage pathway. Importantly, the inhibition of the NAD+ recycling enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase with FK866 led cultured M. corti to death. Innovation: We use comparative genomics of more than 100 hundred helminth genomes, metabolic labeling, HPLC-mass spectrometry targeted metabolomics, and enzyme inhibitors to define pathways that lead to RQ and NAD+ biosynthesis in helminths. We identified the essential enzymes of these pathways in helminth lineages, revealing new potential pharmacological targets for helminthiasis. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that a minimal KYN pathway was evolutionary maintained for RQ and not for de novo NAD+ biosynthesis in helminths and shed light on the essentiality of NAD+ rescue pathways in helminths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosina Comas-Ghierra
- Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la Republica, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Abdulkareem Alshaheeb
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
- The Pennsylvania State University-Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Melanie R McReynolds
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
- The Pennsylvania State University-Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jennifer N Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington, USA
| | - Gustavo Salinas
- Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la Republica, Montevideo, Uruguay
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4
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Identification of 3,4-Dihydro-2 H,6 H-pyrimido[1,2- c][1,3]benzothiazin-6-imine Derivatives as Novel Selective Inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22137236. [PMID: 34281290 PMCID: PMC8268581 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum's resistance to available antimalarial drugs highlights the need for the development of novel drugs. Pyrimidine de novo biosynthesis is a validated drug target for the prevention and treatment of malaria infection. P. falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (PfDHODH) catalyzes the oxidation of dihydroorotate to orotate and utilize ubiquinone as an electron acceptor in the fourth step of pyrimidine de novo biosynthesis. PfDHODH is targeted by the inhibitor DSM265, which binds to a hydrophobic pocket located at the N-terminus where ubiquinone binds, which is known to be structurally divergent from the mammalian orthologue. In this study, we screened 40,400 compounds from the Kyoto University chemical library against recombinant PfDHODH. These studies led to the identification of 3,4-dihydro-2H,6H-pyrimido[1,2-c][1,3]benzothiazin-6-imine and its derivatives as a new class of PfDHODH inhibitor. Moreover, the hit compounds identified in this study are selective for PfDHODH without inhibition of the human enzymes. Finally, this new scaffold of PfDHODH inhibitors showed growth inhibition activity against P. falciparum 3D7 with low toxicity to three human cell lines, providing a new starting point for antimalarial drug development.
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5
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Rhodoquinone in bacteria and animals: Two distinct pathways for biosynthesis of this key electron transporter used in anaerobic bioenergetics. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2020; 1861:148278. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2020.148278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Tan JH, Lautens M, Romanelli-Cedrez L, Wang J, Schertzberg MR, Reinl SR, Davis RE, Shepherd JN, Fraser AG, Salinas G. Alternative splicing of coq-2 controls the levels of rhodoquinone in animals. eLife 2020; 9:e56376. [PMID: 32744503 PMCID: PMC7434440 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic helminths use two benzoquinones as electron carriers in the electron transport chain. In normoxia, they use ubiquinone (UQ), but in anaerobic conditions inside the host, they require rhodoquinone (RQ) and greatly increase RQ levels. We previously showed the switch from UQ to RQ synthesis is driven by a change of substrates by the polyprenyltransferase COQ-2 (Del Borrello et al., 2019; Roberts Buceta et al., 2019); however, the mechanism of substrate selection is not known. Here, we show helminths synthesize two coq-2 splice forms, coq-2a and coq-2e, and the coq-2e-specific exon is only found in species that synthesize RQ. We show that in Caenorhabditis elegans COQ-2e is required for efficient RQ synthesis and survival in cyanide. Importantly, parasites switch from COQ-2a to COQ-2e as they transit into anaerobic environments. We conclude helminths switch from UQ to RQ synthesis principally via changes in the alternative splicing of coq-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- June H Tan
- The Donnelly Centre, University of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | | | - Laura Romanelli-Cedrez
- Laboratorio de Biología de Gusanos. Unidad Mixta, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República - Institut Pasteur de MontevideoMontevideoUruguay
| | - Jianbin Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of TennesseeKnoxvilleUnited States
| | | | - Samantha R Reinl
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga UniversitySpokaneUnited States
| | - Richard E Davis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Jennifer N Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga UniversitySpokaneUnited States
| | | | - Gustavo Salinas
- Laboratorio de Biología de Gusanos. Unidad Mixta, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República - Institut Pasteur de MontevideoMontevideoUruguay
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7
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Roberts Buceta PM, Romanelli-Cedrez L, Babcock SJ, Xun H, VonPaige ML, Higley TW, Schlatter TD, Davis DC, Drexelius JA, Culver JC, Carrera I, Shepherd JN, Salinas G. The kynurenine pathway is essential for rhodoquinone biosynthesis in Caenorhabditis elegans. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:11047-11053. [PMID: 31177094 PMCID: PMC6635453 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ac119.009475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A key metabolic adaptation of some species that face hypoxia as part of their life cycle involves an alternative electron transport chain in which rhodoquinone (RQ) is required for fumarate reduction and ATP production. RQ biosynthesis in bacteria and protists requires ubiquinone (Q) as a precursor. In contrast, Q is not a precursor for RQ biosynthesis in animals such as parasitic helminths, and most details of this pathway have remained elusive. Here, we used Caenorhabditis elegans as a model animal to elucidate key steps in RQ biosynthesis. Using RNAi and a series of C. elegans mutants, we found that arylamine metabolites from the kynurenine pathway are essential precursors for RQ biosynthesis de novo Deletion of kynu-1, encoding a kynureninase that converts l-kynurenine (KYN) to anthranilic acid (AA) and 3-hydroxykynurenine (3HKYN) to 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3HAA), completely abolished RQ biosynthesis but did not affect Q levels. Deletion of kmo-1, which encodes a kynurenine 3-monooxygenase that converts KYN to 3HKYN, drastically reduced RQ but not Q levels. Knockdown of the Q biosynthetic genes coq-5 and coq-6 affected both Q and RQ levels, indicating that both biosynthetic pathways share common enzymes. Our study reveals that two pathways for RQ biosynthesis have independently evolved. Unlike in bacteria, where amination is the last step in RQ biosynthesis, in worms the pathway begins with the arylamine precursor AA or 3HAA. Because RQ is absent in mammalian hosts of helminths, inhibition of RQ biosynthesis may have potential utility for targeting parasitic infections that cause important neglected tropical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Romanelli-Cedrez
- Laboratorio de Biologća de Gusanos, Unidad Mixta, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Qućmica, Universidad de la República-Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Shannon J Babcock
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - Helen Xun
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - Miranda L VonPaige
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - Thomas W Higley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - Tyler D Schlatter
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - Dakota C Davis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - Julia A Drexelius
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - John C Culver
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and
| | - Inés Carrera
- Laboratorio de Biologća de Gusanos, Unidad Mixta, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Qućmica, Universidad de la República-Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Jennifer N Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 and.
| | - Gustavo Salinas
- Laboratorio de Biologća de Gusanos, Unidad Mixta, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Qućmica, Universidad de la República-Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay.
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8
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Bernert AC, Jacobs EJ, Reinl SR, Choi CCY, Roberts Buceta PM, Culver JC, Goodspeed CR, Bradley MC, Clarke CF, Basset GJ, Shepherd JN. Recombinant RquA catalyzes the in vivo conversion of ubiquinone to rhodoquinone in Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2019; 1864:1226-1234. [PMID: 31121262 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Terpenoid quinones are liposoluble redox-active compounds that serve as essential electron carriers and antioxidants. One such quinone, rhodoquinone (RQ), couples the respiratory electron transfer chain to the reduction of fumarate to facilitate anaerobic respiration. This mechanism allows RQ-synthesizing organisms to operate their respiratory chain using fumarate as a final electron acceptor. RQ biosynthesis is restricted to a handful of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, and details of this biosynthetic pathway remain enigmatic. One gene, rquA, was discovered to be required for RQ biosynthesis in Rhodospirillum rubrum. However, the function of the gene product, RquA, has remained unclear. Here, using reverse genetics approaches, we demonstrate that RquA converts ubiquinone to RQ directly. We also demonstrate the first in vivo synthetic production of RQ in Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, two organisms that do not natively produce RQ. These findings help clarify the complete RQ biosynthetic pathway in species which contain RquA homologs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann C Bernert
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Evan J Jacobs
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, United States
| | - Samantha R Reinl
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, United States
| | - Christina C Y Choi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, United States
| | | | - John C Culver
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, United States
| | - Carly R Goodspeed
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, United States
| | - Michelle C Bradley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Catherine F Clarke
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Gilles J Basset
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Jennifer N Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, United States.
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