Cancer cell line-specific protein profiles in extracellular vesicles identified by proteomics

Updates on neonatal cell and novel therapeutics: Proceedings of the Second Neonatal Cell Therapies Symposium (2024)

Cell therapies as treatments for neonatal conditions have attracted significant research and parent interest over the last two decades. Mesenchymal stromal cells, umbilical cord blood cells and neural stem cells translate from lab, to preclinical and into clinical trials, with contributions being made from all over the world. Effective and timely translation involves frequent reflection and consultation from research-adjacent fields (i.e. cell therapies for cerebral palsy, adult neurology, companies, and regulatory bodies) as well as meaningful involvement of people with lived experience. Progress to date suggests that aligning outcome and data reporting in later phase clinical trials will support our sector, as well as involving industry partners for streamlined solutions in cell manufacturing, commercialisation and regulatory processes. Importantly, our field can also benefit from resource sharing and research collaboration in novel drug therapies, small molecules and extracellular vesicles as we attempt to bridge preclinical and clinical research. In this review, we present highlights and learnings from the second Neonatal Cell Therapies Symposium (2024), held in Sydney, Australia. IMPACT: Multiple cell therapy candidates have advanced through preclinical and clinical trials in neonatology, showing promising feasibility, safety and efficacy. Effective and timely translation is enabled by collaboration across research-adjacent fields, commercial partnerships, harmonising research outcomes and meaningful involvement of people with lived experience. Progress on the potential utility of cell therapies for neonatal conditions and further translational considerations are discussed in this paper.

Stabilizing milk-derived extracellular vesicles (mEVs) through lyophilization: a novel trehalose and tryptophan formulation for maintaining structure and Bioactivity during long-term storage

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are widely investigated for their implications in cell-cell signaling, immune modulation, disease pathogenesis, cancer, regenerative medicine, and as a potential drug delivery vector. However, maintaining integrity and bioactivity of EVs between Good Manufacturing Practice separation/filtration and end-user application remains a consistent bottleneck towards commercialization. Milk-derived extracellular vesicles (mEVs), separated from bovine milk, could provide a relatively low-cost, scalable platform for large-scale mEV production; however, the reliance on cold supply chain for storage remains a logistical and financial burden for biologics that are unstable at room temperature. Herein, we aim to characterize and engineer a freeze-dried, mEV formulation that can be stored at room temperature without sacrificing structure/bioactivity and can be reconstituted before delivery. In addition to undertaking established mEV assays of structure and function on our preparations, we introduce a novel, efficient, high throughput assay of mEV bioactivity based on Electric Cell Substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) in Human dermal fibroblast monolayers. By adding appropriate excipients, such as trehalose and tryptophan, we describe a protective formulation that preserves mEV bioactivity during long-term, room temperature storage. Our identification of the efficacy of tryptophan as a novel additive to mEV lyophilization solutions could represent a significant advancement in stabilizing small extracellular vesicles outside of cold storage conditions.

Defining the Soluble and Extracellular Vesicle Protein Compartments of Plasma Using In-Depth Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteomics

Plasma-derived extracellular vesicles (pEVs) are a potential source of diseased biomarker proteins. However, characterizing the pEV proteome is challenging due to its relatively low abundance and difficulties in enrichment. This study presents a streamlined workflow to identify EV proteins from cancer patient plasma using minimal sample input. Starting with 400 μL of plasma, we generated a comprehensive pEV proteome using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) combined with HiRIEF prefractionation-based mass spectrometry (MS). First, we compared the performance of HiRIEF and long gradient MS workflows using control pEVs, quantifying 2076 proteins with HiRIEF. In a proof-of-concept study, we applied SEC-HiRIEF-MS to a small cohort (12) of metastatic lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) and malignant melanoma (MM) patients. We also analyzed plasma samples from the same patients to study the relationship between plasma and pEV proteomes. We identified and quantified 1583 proteins in cancer pEVs and 1468 proteins in plasma across all samples. While there was substantial overlap, the pEV proteome included several unique EV markers and cancer-related proteins. Differential analysis revealed 30 DEPs in LUAD vs the MM group, highlighting the potential of pEVs as biomarkers. This work demonstrates the utility of a prefractionation-based MS for comprehensive pEV proteomics and EV biomarker discovery. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with the identifiers PXD039338 and PXD038528.

Analysis of Cytotoxic Granules and Constitutively Produced Extracellular Vesicles from Large Granular Lymphocytic Leukemia Cell Lines

BACKGROUND

Large granular lymphocyte leukemias (LGLLs) are rare lymphoproliferative malignancies caused by clonal expansion of granular lymphocytes. T-cell LGLL and natural killer (NK) cell LGLL are defined based on their cellular origin. Their clinical manifestation and pathophysiology vary depending on the subtype and include, e.g., neutropenia, anemia, recurrent infections, and autoimmunity. A limited number of available patient-derived cell lines are considered valuable tools to study the biology of these malignancies. They differ in the expression of lineage-specific surface markers, but generally contain cytotoxic effector molecules in characteristic granules.

METHODS

We investigated the presence and release of lysosome-associated effector proteins in patient-derived LGLL cell lines by flow and imaging cytometry, by Western blotting and by bottom-up proteomics profiling.

RESULTS

The tested cell lines did not express FasL (CD178), but did express CD26/DPP4+. Intracellularly, we detected major differences in the abundance and subcellular distribution of granzymes, perforin, and granulysin. Similar differences were seen in enriched lysosome-related effector vesicles (LREVs). The proteomics profiling of enriched EVs from an NK-LGLL line (NKL) and a T-LGLL line (MOTN-1), confirmed individual profiles of effector molecules.

CONCLUSION

Our analyses underscore the individual distribution of effector proteins but also open new routes to define the role of intra- and extracellular granules in the disease manifestation or pathology of LGLLs.

Advances in extracellular vesicles as mediators of cell-to-cell communication in pregnancy

Cell-to-cell communication mediated by Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) is a novel and emerging area of research, especially during pregnancy, in which placenta derived EVs can facilitate the feto-maternal communication. EVs comprise a heterogeneous group of vesicle sub-populations with diverse physical and biochemical characteristics and originate by specific biogenesis mechanisms. EVs transfer molecular cargo (including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids) between cells and are critical mediators of cell communication. There is growing interest among researchers to explore into the molecular cargo of EVs and their functions in a physiological and pathological context. For example, inflammatory mediators such as cytokines are shown to be released in EVs and EVs derived from immune cells play key roles in mediating the immune response as well as immunoregulatory pathways. Pregnancy complications such as gestational diabetes mellitus, preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction and preterm birth are associated with altered levels of circulating EVs, with differential EV cargo and bioactivity in target cells. This implicates the intriguing roles of EVs in reprogramming the maternal physiology during pregnancy. Moreover, the capacity of EVs to carry bioactive molecules makes them a promising tool for biomarker development and targeted therapies in pregnancy complications. This review summarizes the physiological and pathological roles played by EVs in pregnancy and pregnancy-related disorders and describes the potential of EVs to be translated into clinical applications in the diagnosis and treatment of pregnancy complications.

Proton Compared to X-Irradiation Induces Different Protein Profiles in Oral Cancer Cells and Their Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound particles released from cells, and their cargo can alter the function of recipient cells. EVs from X-irradiated cells have been shown to play a likely role in non-targeted effects. However, EVs derived from proton irradiated cells have not yet been studied. We aimed to investigate the proteome of EVs and their cell of origin after proton or X-irradiation. The EVs were derived from a human oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell line exposed to 0, 4, or 8 Gy from either protons or X-rays. The EVs and irradiated OSCC cells underwent liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for protein identification. Interestingly, we found different protein profiles both in the EVs and in the OSCC cells after proton irradiation compared to X-irradiation. In the EVs, we found that protons cause a downregulation of proteins involved in cell growth and DNA damage response compared to X-rays. In the OSCC cells, proton and X-irradiation induced dissimilar cell death pathways and distinct DNA damage repair systems. These results are of potential importance for understanding how non-targeted effects in normal tissue can be limited and for future implementation of proton therapy in the clinic.

Extracellular vesicles and melanoma: New perspectives on tumor microenvironment and metastasis

Secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer particles without functional nucleus naturally released from cells which constitute an intercellular communication system. There is a broad spectrum of vesicles shed by cells based on their physical properties such as size (small EVs and large EVs), biogenesis, cargo and functions, which provide an increasingly heterogenous landscape. In addition, they are involved in multiple physiological and pathological processes. In cancer, EV release is opted by tumor cells as a beneficial process for tumor progression. Cutaneous melanoma is a cancer that originates from the melanocyte lineage and shows a favorable prognosis at early stages. However, when melanoma cells acquire invasive capacity, it constitutes the most aggressive and deadly skin cancer. In this context, extracellular vesicles have been shown their relevance in facilitating melanoma progression through the modulation of the microenvironment and metastatic spreading. In agreement with the melanosome secretory capacity of melanocytes, melanoma cells display an enhanced EV shedding activity that has contributed to the utility of melanoma models for unravelling EV cargo and functions within a cancer scenario. In this review, we provide an in-depth overview of the characteristics of melanoma-derived EVs and their role in melanoma progression highlighting key advances and remaining open questions in the field.

Combination of size-exclusion chromatography and ion exchange adsorption for improving the proteomic analysis of plasma-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid membrane vesicles released by live cells that carry a variety of biomolecules, including nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins. Recently, proteins in plasma-derived EVs have emerged as novel biomarkers with essential functions in the diagnosis and prognosis of human diseases. However, the current methods of isolating EVs from plasma often lead to coisolated impurities in biological fluids. Therefore, before performing any research protocol, the process of extracting EVs from plasma for proteomic analysis must be optimized. In this study, two EV isolation strategies, size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and SEC combined with ion exchange adsorption (SEC + IEA), were compared in terms of the purity and quantity of protein in EVs. Our results demonstrated that, compared to single-step SEC, SEC combined with IEA could produce plasma-derived EVs with a higher purity by decreasing the abundance of lipoprotein. Additionally, with MS analysis, we demonstrated that the combination approach maintained the stability and improved the purity of EVs in many plasma samples. Furthermore, by combining SEC with IEA, more cancer-associated proteins were detected in the plasma of various cancer samples.

The Convergence of FTIR and EVs: Emergence Strategy for Non-Invasive Cancer Markers Discovery

In conjunction with imaging analysis, pathology-based assessments of biopsied tissue are the gold standard for diagnosing solid tumors. However, the disadvantages of tissue biopsies, such as being invasive, time-consuming, and labor-intensive, have urged the development of an alternate method, liquid biopsy, that involves sampling and clinical assessment of various bodily fluids for cancer diagnosis. Meanwhile, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are circulating biomarkers that carry molecular profiles of their cell or tissue origins and have emerged as one of the most promising biomarkers for cancer. Owing to the biological information that can be obtained through EVs' membrane surface markers and their cargo loaded with biomolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, EVs have become useful in cancer diagnosis and therapeutic applications. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) allows rapid, non-destructive, label-free molecular profiling of EVs with minimal sample preparation. Since the heterogeneity of EV subpopulations may result in complicated FTIR spectra that are highly diverse, computational-assisted FTIR spectroscopy is employed in many studies to provide fingerprint spectra of malignant and non-malignant samples, allowing classification with high accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity. In view of this, FTIR-EV approach carries a great potential in cancer detection. The progression of FTIR-based biomarker identification in EV research, the rationale of the integration of a computationally assisted approach, along with the challenges of clinical translation are the focus of this review.

Proteomic profiling of cell line-derived extracellular vesicles to identify candidate circulatory markers for detection of gallbladder cancer

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the sixth most common gastrointestinal tract cancer with a very low overall survival and poor prognosis. Profiling of cancer-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) is an emerging strategy for identification of candidate biomarkers for the detection and prognosis of the disease. The aim of the study was to analyse the protein content from GBC cell line- derived EVs with emphasis on proteins which could be used as candidate biomarkers for the detection of GBC. NOZ and OCUG-1 cell lines were cultured and EVs were isolated from conditioned media. LC-MS/MS analysis of total EV proteins led to the identification of a total of 268 proteins in both the cell lines. Of these, 110 proteins were identified with ≥2 unique peptides with ≥2 PSMs in at least two experimental and technical replicate runs. STRING (Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins) database was used to perform bioinformatics analysis of 110 proteins which showed 'cell adhesion molecule binding', 'integrin binding', 'cadherin binding' among the top molecular functions and 'focal adhesion' to be among the top pathways associated with the EV proteins. A total of 42 proteins including haptoglobin (HP), pyruvate kinase (PKM), annexin A2 (ANXA2), thrombospondin 1 (THBS1), were reported to be differentially abundant in GBC tissue. Of these, 16 proteins were reported to be differentially abundant in plasma and plasma-derived EVs. We infer these proteins to be highly important to be considered as potential circulatory biomarkers for the detection of GBC. To check the validity of this hypothesis, one of the proteins, haptoglobin (HP) as a representative case, was analysed in plasma by quantitative Enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and we observed its increased levels in GBC in comparison to controls (p value= 0.0063). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis for GBC vs controls showed an Area under the ROC Curve (AUC) of 0.8264 for HP with 22% sensitivity against 100% specificity. We propose that HP along with other candidate proteins may be further explored for their clinical application.

Comparative analysis of tangential flow filtration and ultracentrifugation, both combined with subsequent size exclusion chromatography, for the isolation of small extracellular vesicles

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) provide major promise for advances in cancer diagnostics, prognostics, and therapeutics, ascribed to their distinctive cargo reflective of pathophysiological status, active involvement in intercellular communication, as well as their ubiquity and stability in bodily fluids. As a result, the field of sEV research has expanded exponentially. Nevertheless, there is a lack of standardisation in methods for sEV isolation from cells grown in serum-containing media. The majority of researchers use serum-containing media for sEV harvest and employ ultracentrifugation as the primary isolation method. Ultracentrifugation is inefficient as it is devoid of the capacity to isolate high sEV yields without contamination of non-sEV materials or disruption of sEV integrity. We comprehensively evaluated a protocol using tangential flow filtration and size exclusion chromatography to isolate sEVs from a variety of human and murine cancer cell lines, including HeLa, MDA-MB-231, EO771 and B16F10. We directly compared the performance of traditional ultracentrifugation and tangential flow filtration methods, that had undergone further purification by size exclusion chromatography, in their capacity to separate sEVs, and rigorously characterised sEV properties using multiple quantification devices, protein analyses and both image and nano-flow cytometry. Ultracentrifugation and tangential flow filtration both enrich consistent sEV populations, with similar size distributions of particles ranging up to 200 nm. However, tangential flow filtration exceeds ultracentrifugation in isolating significantly higher yields of sEVs, making it more suitable for large-scale research applications. Our results demonstrate that tangential flow filtration is a reliable and robust sEV isolation approach that surpasses ultracentrifugation in yield, reproducibility, time, costs and scalability. These advantages allow for implementation in comprehensive research applications and downstream investigations.

Multi-omics analysis revealed the role of extracellular vesicles in hepatobiliary & pancreatic tumor

Liquid biopsy is rapidly growing into a hot research field due to its unique advantages of minimal invasiveness, and extracellular vesicle (EVs) are also expected to become an important pillar in the diagnostic technology system as a newly discovered active substance carrier. More and more research has highlighted the important contribution of EVs in the progress of tumor. Molecular changes during disease progression could be detected in EVs. However, the diagnostic applications of EVs are not generally understood. Combined with the characteristics of hepatobiliary and pancreatic tumor, we summarized the recent developments in various omics analysis of EVs. Furtherly, we explored the role of EVs in the early diagnosis of hepatobiliary and pancreatic tumors by multi-omics analysis.

IL-8 Is Upregulated in the Tissue-Derived EVs of Odontogenic Keratocysts

Background

Interleukin 8 (IL-8) is a chemotactic cytokine released by various cells including leukocytes, endothelial cells, and epithelial cells. IL-8 has multiple functions in inflammation, tumour invasion, or angiogenesis. Human odontogenic cystic lesions are chronic and frequently inflamed. Tissue-derived extracellular vesicles (Ti-EVs) are widely present in various tissues and could more accurately reflect the characteristics of the primary tissue. However, the involvement of IL-8 in Ti-EVs of human odontogenic lesions is still unclear. This study aimed to explore the expression of IL-8 in Ti-EVs of human odontogenic lesions and the potential roles of Ti-EVs that carried IL-8.

Methods

Fresh tissue samples of dentigerous cyst (DC, n = 5) and odontogenic keratocyst (OKC, n = 5) were collected for Ti-EVs isolation. Ti-EVs were characterised by transmission electron microscopy and nano-flow cytometry analysis. The cytokine profile of Ti-EVs was explored by cytokine antibody array. The IL-8 expression was examined by immunochemical staining in tissue of odontogenic lesions (DC, n =12; OKC, n =28). Antioxidants (N-acetyl-L-cysteine and diphenyleneiodonium) were employed to treat HaCaT cells, and the expression of IL-8 was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The gene expression of MMP9 was explored by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in co-culture system of fibroblasts of OKC with Ti-EVs.

Results

Compared with DC, the expression of IL-8 in Ti-EVs and fixed tissue specimens of OKC was markedly upregulated. The antioxidants decreased the expression level of IL-8 protein in the supernatant of HaCaT cells. The Ti-EVs treatment (10 μg/ml) of fibroblasts significantly induced the MMP9 mRNA expressions in OKC fibroblasts.

Conclusions

IL-8 was upregulated in Ti-EVs of OKC and might be involved in the tissue destruction of OKC.

Conducting Polymer-Coated Carbon Cloth Captures and Releases Extracellular Vesicles by a Rapid and Controlled Redox Process

Electrochemical techniques offer great opportunities for the capture of chemical and biological entities from complex mixtures and their subsequent release into clean buffers for analysis. Such methods are clean, robust, rapid, and compatible with a wide range of biological fluids. Here, we designed an electrochemically addressable system, based on a conducting terpolymer [P(EDOT-co-EDOTSAc-co-EDOTEG)] coated onto a carbon cloth substrate, to selectively capture and release biological entities using a simple electrochemical redox process. The conducting terpolymer composition was optimized and the terpolymer-coated carbon cloth was extensively characterized using electrochemical analysis, Raman and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, water contact angle analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. The conductive terpolymer possesses a derivative of EDOT with an acetylthiomethyl moiety (EDOTSAc), which is converted into a "free" thiol that then undergoes reversible oxidation/reduction cycles at +1.0 V and -0.8 V (vs Ag/AgCl), respectively. That redox process enables electrochemical capture and on-demand release. We first demonstrated the successful electrochemical capture/release of a fluorescently labeled IgG antibody. The same capture/release procedure was then applied to release extracellular vesicles (EVs), originating from both MCF7 and SKBR3 breast cancer cell line bioreactors. EVs were captured using the substrate-conjugated HER2 antibody which was purified from commercially available trastuzumab. Capture and release of breast cancer EVs using a trastuzumab-derived HER2 antibody has not been reported before (to the best of our knowledge). A rapid (2 min) release at a low potential (-0.8 V) achieved a high release efficiency (>70%) of the captured, HER2+ve, SKBR3 EVs. The developed system and the electrochemical method are efficient and straightforward and have vast potential for the isolation and concentration of various biological targets from large volumes of biological and other (e.g., environmental) samples.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Melanoma Progression

Cutaneous melanoma arises from a malignant transformation of the melanocytes in the skin. It is the deadliest form of skin cancer owing to its potential to metastasize. While recent advances in immuno-oncology have been successful in melanoma treatment, not all the patients respond to the treatment equally, thus individual pre-screening and personalized combination therapies are essential to stratify and monitor patients. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as promising biomarker candidates to tackle these challenges. EVs are ~50-1000-nm-sized, lipid bilayer-enclosed spheres, which are secreted by almost all cell types, including cancer cells. Their cargo, such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, amino acids, and metabolites, can be transferred to target cells. Thanks to these properties, EVs can both provide a multiplexed molecular fingerprint of the cell of origin and thus serve as potential biomarkers, or reveal pathways important for cancer progression that can be targeted pharmaceutically. In this review we give a general overview of EVs and focus on their impact on melanoma progression. In particular, we shed light on the role of EVs in shaping the tumor-stroma interactions that facilitate metastasis and summarize the latest findings on molecular profiling of EV-derived miRNAs and proteins that can serve as potential biomarkers for melanoma progression.

Theragnostic Applications of Mammal and Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Latest Findings, Current Technologies, and Prospects

The way cells communicate is not fully understood. However, it is well-known that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved. Researchers initially thought that EVs were used by cells to remove cellular waste. It is now clear that EVs function as signaling molecules released by cells to communicate with one another, carrying a cargo representing the mother cell. Furthermore, these EVs can be found in all biological fluids, making them the perfect non-invasive diagnostic tool, as their cargo causes functional changes in the cells upon receiving, unlike synthetic drug carriers. EVs last longer in circulation and instigate minor immune responses, making them the perfect drug carrier. This review sheds light on the latest development in EVs isolation, characterization and, application as therapeutic cargo, novel drug loading techniques, and diagnostic tools. We also address the advancement in plant-derived EVs, their characteristics, and applications; since plant-derived EVs only recently gained focus, we listed the latest findings. Although there is much more to learn about, EV is a wide field of research; what scientists have discovered so far is fascinating. This paper is suitable for those new to the field seeking to understand EVs and those already familiar with it but wanting to review the latest findings.

Liquid biopsies to occult brain metastasis

Brain metastasis (BrM) is a major problem associated with cancer-related mortality, and currently, no specific biomarkers are available in clinical settings for early detection. Liquid biopsy is widely accepted as a non-invasive method for diagnosing cancer and other diseases. We have reviewed the evidence that shows how the molecular alterations are involved in BrM, majorly from breast cancer (BC), lung cancer (LC), and melanoma, with an inception in how they can be employed for biomarker development. We discussed genetic and epigenetic changes that influence cancer cells to breach the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and help to establish metastatic lesions in the uniquely distinct brain microenvironment. Keeping abreast with the recent breakthroughs in the context of various biomolecules detections and identifications, the circulating tumor cells (CTC), cell-free nucleotides, non-coding RNAs, secretory proteins, and metabolites can be pursued in human body fluids such as blood, serum, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and urine to obtain potential candidates for biomarker development. The liquid biopsy-based biomarkers can overlay with current imaging techniques to amplify the signal viable for improving the early detection and treatments of occult BrM.

Proteomic analysis distinguishes extracellular vesicles produced by cancerous versus healthy pancreatic organoids

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced and released by both healthy and malignant cells and bear markers indicative of ongoing biological processes. In the present study we utilized high resolution flow cytometry to detect EVs in the plasma of patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and in the supernatants of PDAC and healthy control (HC) pancreatic organoid cultures. Using ultrafiltration and size exclusion chromatography, PDAC and HC pancreatic organoid EVs were isolated for mass spectrometry analysis. Proteomic and functional protein network analysis showed a striking distinction in that EV proteins profiled in pancreatic cancer organoids were involved in vesicular transport and tumorigenesis while EV proteins in healthy organoids were involved in cellular homeostasis. Thus, the most abundant proteins identified in either case represented non-overlapping cellular programs. Tumor-promoting candidates LAMA5, SDCBP and TENA were consistently upregulated in PDAC EVs. Validation of specific markers for PDAC EVs versus healthy pancreatic EVs will provide the biomarkers and enhanced sensitivity necessary to monitor early disease or disease progression, with or without treatment. Moreover, disease-associated changes in EV protein profiles provide an opportunity to investigate alterations in cellular programming with disease progression.

Liposomes and Extracellular Vesicles as Drug Delivery Systems: A Comparison of Composition, Pharmacokinetics, and Functionalization

Over the past decades, lipid-based nanoparticle drug delivery systems (DDS) have caught the attention of researchers worldwide, encouraging the field to rapidly develop improved ways for effective drug delivery. One of the most prominent examples is liposomes, which are spherical shaped artificial vesicles composed of lipid bilayers and able to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic materials. At the same time, biological nanoparticles naturally secreted by cells, called extracellular vesicles (EVs), have emerged as promising more complex biocompatible DDS. In this review paper, the differences and similarities in the composition of both vesicles are evaluated, and critical mediators that affect their pharmacokinetics are elucidate. Different strategies that have been assessed to tweak the pharmacokinetics of both liposomes and EVs are explored, detailing the effects on circulation time, targeting capacity, and cytoplasmic delivery of therapeutic cargo. Finally, whether a hybrid system, consisting of a combination of only the critical constituents of both vesicles, could offer the best of both worlds is discussed. Through these topics, novel leads for further research are provided and, more importantly, gain insight in what the liposome field and the EV field can learn from each other.

Tumor-Specific miRNA Signatures in Combination with CA19-9 for Liquid Biopsy-Based Detection of PDAC

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is considered one of the most aggressive malignancies and has high mortality and poor survival rates. Therefore, there is an urgent need to discover non-invasive biomarkers for early detection before PDAC reaches the incurable stage. We hypothesized that liquid biopsy of PDAC-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEs) containing abundant microRNAs (miRNAs) could be used for early diagnosis of PDAC because they can be selectively enriched and because they are biologically stable. We isolated PDEs by immunocapture using magnetic beads, and we identified 13 miRNA candidates in 20 pancreatic cancer patients and 20 normal controls. We found that expression of five miRNAs, including miR-10b, miR-16, miR-155, miR-429, and miR-1290, was markedly higher in PDEs. Furthermore, the miRNA signatures along with serum carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA19-9) were optimized by logistic regression, and the miRNA signature and CA19-9 combination markers (CMs) were effective at differentiating PDAC patients from normal controls. As a result, the CMs represented a high sensitivity (AUC, 0.964; sensitivity, 100%; specificity, 80%) and a high specificity (AUC, 0.962; sensitivity, 85.71%; specificity, 100%). These findings suggest that five miRNAs expressed in PDEs and CA19-9 are valuable biomarkers for screening and diagnosis of pancreatic cancer by liquid biopsy.

Emerging role of exosomes as biomarkers in cancer treatment and diagnosis

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide and cancer incidence and mortality are rapidly growing. These massive amounts of cancer patients require rapid diagnosis and efficient treatment strategies. However, the currently utilized methods are invasive and cost-effective. Recently, the effective roles of exosomes as promising diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarkers have been revealed. Exosomes are membrane-bound extracellular vesicles containing RNAs, DNAs, and proteins, and are present in a wide array of body fluids. Exosomal cargos have shown the potential to detect various types of cancers at early stages with high sensitivity and specificity. They can also delivery therapeutic agents efficiently. In this article, an overview of recent advances in the research of exosomal biomarkers and their applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment has been provided. Furthermore, the advantages and challenges of exosomes as liquid biopsy targets are discussed and the clinical implications of using exosomal miRNAs have been revealed.

Modulation of Early Neutrophil Granulation: The Circulating Tumor Cell-Extravesicular Connection in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Simple Summary

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) found in the blood of pancreatic cancer patients show a worse prognosis to therapy if they are seen in clusters of cells with neutrophils or platelets or with other cell types than when they are seen as singlets. We wanted to investigate if there is a secondary mode of communication between the CTCs and neutrophils that causes them to associate. We describe for the first time an extravesicular (EV) mediated communication between CTCs and neutrophils that modulates early transcriptome changes that can cause neutrophils to partially degranulate and form associations. We also identify the protein cargo carried in such EVs and how when added to naïve neutrophils, they can modulate transcriptomic changes in neutrophils partially disarming them to form clusters rather than undergo specialized cell death, which is characterized by release of condensed chromatin (NETs) and granular contents termed as NETosis.

Abstract

Tumor cells dissociate from the primary site and enter into systemic circulation (circulating tumor cells, CTCs) either alone or as tumor microemboli (clusters); the latter having an increased predisposition towards forming distal metastases than single CTCs. The formation of clusters is, in part, created by contacts between cell–cell junction proteins and/or cytokine receptor pairs with other cells such as neutrophils, platelets, fibroblasts, etc. In the present study, we provide evidence for an extravesicular (EV) mode of communication between pancreatic cancer CTCs and neutrophils. Our results suggest that the EV proteome of CTCs contain signaling proteins that can modulate degranulation and granule mobilization in neutrophils and, also, contain tissue plasminogen activator and other proteins that can regulate cluster formation. By exposing naïve neutrophils to EVs isolated from CTCs, we further show how these changes are modulated in a dynamic fashion indicating evidence for a deeper EV based remodulatory effect on companion cells in clusters.

Proteomic approaches to assist in diagnosis and prognosis of oral cancer

Introduction: Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) ranks among the top 10 leading causes of cancer worldwide, with 5-year survival rate of about 50%, high lymph node metastasis, and relapse rates. The OSCC diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment are mostly based on the clinical TNM classification. There is an urgent need for the discovery of biomarkers and therapeutic targets to assist in the clinical decision-making process.Areas covered: We summarize proteomic studies of the OSCC tumor, immune microenvironment, potential liquid biopsy sites, and post-translational modifications trying to retrieve information in the discovery and verification or (pre)validation phases. The search strategy was based on the combination of MeSH terms and expert refinement.Expert opinion: Untargeted combined with targeted proteomics are strategies that provide reliable and reproducible quantitation of proteins and are the methods of choice of many groups worldwide. Undoubtedly, proteomics has been contributing to the understanding of OSCC progression and uncovers potential candidates as biomarker or therapeutic targets. Nevertheless, none of these targets are available in the clinical practice yet. The scientific community needs to overcome the limitations by investing in robust experimental designs to strengthen the value of the findings, leveraging the translation of knowledge, and further supporting clinical decisions.

Circulating Melanoma-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Impact on Melanoma Diagnosis, Progression Monitoring, and Treatment Response

Malignant melanoma, one of the most aggressive human malignancies, is responsible for 80% of skin cancer deaths. Whilst early detection of disease progression or metastasis can improve patient survival, this remains a challenge due to the lack of reliable biomarkers. Importantly, these clinical challenges are not unique to humans, as melanoma affects many other species, including companion animals, such as the dog and horse. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny nanoparticles involved in cell-to-cell communication. Several protein and genomic EV markers have been described in the literature, as well as a wide variety of methods for isolating EVs from body fluids. As such, they may be valuable biomarkers in cancer and may address some clinical challenges in the management melanoma. This review aimed to explore the translational applications of EVs as biomarkers in melanoma, as well as their role in the clinical setting in humans and animals. A summary of melanoma-specific protein and genomic EV markers is presented, followed by a discussion of the role EVs in monitoring disease progression and treatment response. Finally, herein, we reviewed the advantages and disadvantages of methods utilised to isolate EVs from bodily fluids in melanoma patients (human and animals) and describe some of the challenges that will need to be addressed before EVs can be introduced in the clinical setting.