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Park JS, Kim C, Choi J, Jeong HY, Moon YM, Kang H, Lee EK, Cho ML, Park SH. MicroRNA-21a-5p inhibition alleviates systemic sclerosis by targeting STAT3 signaling. J Transl Med 2024; 22:323. [PMID: 38561750 PMCID: PMC10983659 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-05056-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND MicroRNA (miRNA)-21-5p participates in various biological processes, including cancer and autoimmune diseases. However, its role in the development of fibrosis in the in vivo model of systemic sclerosis (SSc) has not been reported. This study investigated the effects of miRNA-21a-5p overexpression and inhibition on SSc fibrosis using a bleomycin-induced SSc mouse model. METHODS A murine SSc model was induced by subcutaneously injecting 100 μg bleomycin dissolved in 0.9% NaCl into C57BL/6 mice daily for 5 weeks. On days 14, 21, and 28 from the start of bleomycin injection, 100 μg pre-miRNA-21a-5p or anti-miRNA-21a-5p in 1 mL saline was hydrodynamically injected into the mice. Fibrosis analysis was conducted in lung and skin tissues of SSc mice using hematoxylin and eosin as well as Masson's trichrome staining. Immunohistochemistry was used to examine the expression of inflammatory cytokines, phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) at Y705 or S727, and phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome-10 (PTEN) in skin tissues of SSc mice. RESULTS MiRNA-21a-5p overexpression promoted lung fibrosis in bleomycin-induced SSc mice, inducing infiltration of cells expressing TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, or IL-17, along with STAT3 phosphorylated cells in the lesional skin. Conversely, anti-miRNA-21a-5p injection improved fibrosis in the lung and skin tissues of SSc mice, reducing the infiltration of cells secreting inflammatory cytokines in the skin tissue. In particular, it decreased STAT3-phosphorylated cell infiltration at Y705 and increased the infiltration of PTEN-expressing cells in the skin tissue of SSc mice. CONCLUSION MiRNA-21a-5p promotes fibrosis in an in vivo murine SSc model, suggesting that its inhibition may be a therapeutic strategy for improving fibrosis in SSc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Sil Park
- The Rheumatism Research Center, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
- Lab of Translational ImmunoMedicine, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
| | - Chongtae Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
| | - JeongWon Choi
- The Rheumatism Research Center, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
- Lab of Translational ImmunoMedicine, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
| | - Ha Yeon Jeong
- The Rheumatism Research Center, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
- Lab of Translational ImmunoMedicine, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
| | - Young-Mee Moon
- The Rheumatism Research Center, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
| | - Hoin Kang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea
| | - Eun Kyung Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea.
| | - Mi-La Cho
- The Rheumatism Research Center, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea.
- Department of Medical Lifescience, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea.
- Department of Biomedicine & Health Sciences, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea.
- Lab of Translational ImmunoMedicine, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea.
| | - Sung-Hwan Park
- The Rheumatism Research Center, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea.
- Divison of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-Daero, Seocho-Gu, Seoul, 06591, South Korea.
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Kong X, Yao X, Ren J, Gao J, Cui Y, Sun J, Xu X, Hu W, Wang H, Li H, Glebov OO, Che F, Wan Q. tDCS Regulates ASBT-3-OxoLCA-PLOD2-PTEN Signaling Pathway to Confer Neuroprotection Following Rat Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:6715-6730. [PMID: 37477767 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03504-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Humans exhibit a rich intestinal microbiome that contain high levels of bacteria capable of producing 3-oxo-lithocholic acid (3-oxoLCA) and other secondary bile acids (BAs). The molecular mechanism mediating the role of 3-oxoLCA in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury remains unclear. We investigated the role of 3-oxoLCA in a rat cerebral I/R injury model. We found that the concentrations of 3-oxoLCA within the cerebrospinal fluid were increased following I/R. In the in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model, the levels of intraneuronal 3-oxoLCA was elevated following OGD insult. We showed that the increase of membrane ASBT (apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter) contributed to OGD-induced elevation of intraneuronal 3-oxoLCA. Increasing intraneuronal 3-oxoLCA promoted ischemia-induced neuronal death, whereas reducing 3-oxoLCA levels were neuroprotective. Our results revealed that PLOD2 (procollagen-lysine, 2-oxoglutarate 5-dioxygenases 2) functioned upstream of PTEN (the phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) and downstream of 3-oxoLCA to promote OGD-induced neuronal injury. We further demonstrated that direct-current stimulation (DCS) decreased the levels of intraneuronal 3-oxoLCA and membrane ASBT in OGD-insulted neurons, while bilateral transcranial DCS (tDCS) reduced brain infarct volume following I/R by inhibiting ASBT. Together, these data suggest that increased expression of ASBT promotes neuronal death via 3-oxoLCA-PLOD2-PTEN signaling pathway. Importantly, bilateral tDCS suppresses ischemia-induced increase of ASBT, thereby conferring neuroprotection after cerebral I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyi Kong
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Xujin Yao
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Jinyang Ren
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Jingchen Gao
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Yu Cui
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Jiangdong Sun
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Xiangyu Xu
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Wenjie Hu
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Huanting Li
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Oleg O Glebov
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry, The Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Fengyuan Che
- Central Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Linyi People's Hospital, Qingdao University, 27 East Jiefang Road, Linyi, Shandong, China.
| | - Qi Wan
- Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, 266071, China.
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Jiang S, Sun HF, Li S, Zhang N, Chen JS, Liu JX. SPARC: a potential target for functional nanomaterials and drugs. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1235428. [PMID: 37577749 PMCID: PMC10419254 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1235428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC), also termed osteonectin or BM-40, is a matricellular protein which regulates cell adhesion, extracellular matrix production, growth factor activity, and cell cycle. Although SPARC does not perform a structural function, it, however, modulates interactions between cells and the surrounding extracellular matrix due to its anti-proliferative and anti-adhesion properties. The overexpression of SPARC at sites, including injury, regeneration, obesity, cancer, and inflammation, reveals its application as a prospective target and therapeutic indicator in the treatment and assessment of disease. This article comprehensively summarizes the mechanism of SPARC overexpression in inflammation and tumors as well as the latest research progress of functional nanomaterials in the therapy of rheumatoid arthritis and tumors by manipulating SPARC as a new target. This article provides ideas for using functional nanomaterials to treat inflammatory diseases through the SPARC target. The purpose of this article is to provide a reference for ongoing disease research based on SPARC-targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Jiang
- School of Pharmacy, Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Rehabilitation and Healthcare, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua, China
| | - Hui-Feng Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Shuang Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Rehabilitation and Healthcare, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua, China
- College Pharmacy, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Rehabilitation and Healthcare, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua, China
| | - Ji-Song Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Rehabilitation and Healthcare, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua, China
| | - Jian-Xin Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Rehabilitation and Healthcare, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of South China, Hengyang, China
- Institute of Innovation and Applied Research in Chinese Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
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Jones CE, Sharick JT, Sizemore ST, Cukierman E, Strohecker AM, Leight JL. A miniaturized screening platform to identify novel regulators of extracellular matrix alignment. CANCER RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 2:1471-1486. [PMID: 36530465 PMCID: PMC9757767 DOI: 10.1158/2767-9764.crc-22-0157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix alignment contributes to metastasis in a number of cancers and is a known prognostic stromal factor; however, the mechanisms controlling matrix organization remain unclear. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) play a critical role in this process, particularly via matrix production and modulation of key signaling pathways controlling cell adhesion and contractility. Stroma normalization, as opposed to elimination, is a highly sought strategy, and screening for drugs that effectively alter extracellular matrix (ECM) alignment is a practical way to identify novel CAF-normalizing targets that modulate ECM organization. To meet this need, we developed a novel high-throughput screening platform in which fibroblast-derived matrices were produced in 384-well plates, imaged with automated confocal microscopy, and analyzed using a customized MATLAB script. This platform is a technical advance because it miniaturizes the assay, eliminates costly and time-consuming experimental steps, and streamlines data acquisition and analysis to enable high-throughput screening applications. As a proof of concept, this platform was used to screen a kinase inhibitor library to identify modulators of matrix alignment. A number of novel potential regulators were identified, including several receptor tyrosine kinases (c-MET, tropomyosin receptor kinase 1 (NTRK1), HER2/ERBB2) and the serine/threonine kinases protein kinase A, C, and G (PKA, PKC, and PKG). The expression of these regulators was analyzed in publicly available patient datasets to examine the association between stromal gene expression and patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin E. Jones
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Joe T. Sharick
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
- The James Comprehensive Cancer Center, Program in Cancer Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Steven T. Sizemore
- The James Comprehensive Cancer Center, Program in Cancer Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Edna Cukierman
- Cancer Signaling and Epigenetics, The Marvin and Concetta Greenberg Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Temple Health, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Anne Marie Strohecker
- The James Comprehensive Cancer Center, Program in Cancer Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Jennifer L. Leight
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
- The James Comprehensive Cancer Center, Program in Cancer Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
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Vissers TACM, Piek L, Patuleia SIS, Duinmeijer AJ, Bakker MF, van der Wall E, van Diest PJ, van Gils CH, Moelans CB. Elevated miR-29c-5p Expression in Nipple Aspirate Fluid Is Associated with Extremely High Mammographic Breast Density. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14153805. [PMID: 35954468 PMCID: PMC9367509 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14153805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary High mammographic density is a known risk factor for breast cancer. However, the underlying mechanisms of high mammographic density development and breast cancer are unknown. MicroRNAs are potential biomarkers indicative of carcinogenesis and can be assessed in nipple aspirate fluid. We used nipple aspirate fluid from women with very low and extremely high mammographic density to examine differences in expression of multiple miRNAs between both extremes in the spectrum of mammographic density. We found that hsa-miR-29c-5p was upregulated in an extremely high mammographic density context and potential targets were identified that might provide clues of the relationship between high mammographic density and breast cancer risk. Understanding the relationship between high mammographic density and breast cancer is of great value for early breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. With our research we provide new insight into this relationship and further research could determine the effects of dysregulated hsa-miR-29c-5p on the identified candidate targets. Abstract High mammographic density (MD) is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer, however the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. This research aimed to identify microRNAs (miRNAs) that play a role in the development of extremely dense breast tissue. In the discovery phase, 754 human mature miRNAs were profiled in 21 extremely high MD- and 20 very low MD-derived nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) samples from healthy women. In the validation phase, candidate miRNAs were assessed in a cohort of 89 extremely high MD and 81 very low MD NAF samples from healthy women. Independent predictors of either extremely high MD or miRNA expression were identified by logistic regression and linear regression analysis, respectively. mRNA targets and pathways were identified through miRTarBase, TargetScan, and PANTHER pathway analysis. Statistical analysis identified four differentially expressed miRNAs during the discovery phase. During the validation, linear regression (p = 0.029; fold change = 2.10) and logistic regression (p = 0.048; odds ratio = 1.38) showed that hsa-miR-29c-5p was upregulated in extremely high MD-derived NAF. Identified candidate mRNA targets of hsa-miR-29c-5p are CFLAR, DNMT3A, and PTEN. Further validation and exploration of targets and downstream pathways of has-miR-29c-5p will provide better insight into the processes involved in the development of high MD and in the associated increased risk of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa A. C. M. Vissers
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Leonie Piek
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Susana I. S. Patuleia
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Aafke J. Duinmeijer
- Department of Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marije F. Bakker
- Department of Epidemiology of the Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Elsken van der Wall
- Department of Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Paul J. van Diest
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Carla H. van Gils
- Department of Epidemiology of the Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cathy B. Moelans
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-887-556-882
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Abstract
Decades of research have concluded that disruptions to Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) have profound effects on cancer progression. However, as our understanding of the tumor stroma has evolved, we can appreciate that disruptions to tumor suppressors such as PTEN should not be studied solely in an epithelial context. Inactivation of PTEN in the stroma is associated with worse outcomes in human cancers, therefore, it is important to understand activities regulated downstream of PTEN in stromal compartments. Studies reviewed herein provide evidence for important mechanistic targets downstream of PTEN signaling in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), a major component of the tumor stroma. We also discuss the potential clinical implications for these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia E Lefler
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Cara Seward
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Michael C Ostrowski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States.
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Updated efficacy of adjuvant epirubicin plus cyclophosphamide followed by taxanes versus carboplatin plus taxanes in early triple-negative breast cancer in phase 2 trial: 8.1-year median follow-up. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2021; 191:97-105. [PMID: 34648118 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-021-06401-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paclitaxel/docetaxel after doxorubicin plus cyclophosphamide (ECT) is considered as an adjuvant chemotherapy and improves the survival of early triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients. We aim to assess whether carboplatin plus taxanes (TP) is non-inferior to ECT in prolonging the survival time. METHODS TNBC patients were randomized (1:1) to receive ECT (90 mg/m2 epirubicin + 600 mg/m2 cyclophosphamide followed by 75 mg/m2 docetaxel or 175 mg/m2 paclitaxel every 3 weeks, n = 154) or TP (75 mg/m2 docetaxel or 175 mg/m2 paclitaxel + carboplatin AUC 5 every 3 weeks, n = 154). These expression of SPARC, PD-L1, and BRCA were studied. Patients were followed up for disease-free survival (DFS), overall survival (OS), and safety. RESULTS We recruited 308 TNBC patients (median follow-up of 97.6 months). The median DFS and OS were not reached; the 8-year DFS rate of ECT and TP arms was 78.4% and 81.7%, respectively, while the 8-year OS rate were 87.2% and 89.1%, respectively. In the SPARC (> 50%) subgroup analysis, the TP arm had longer DFS (P = 0.049) and a tendency with better OS (P = 0.06) than ECT arm. No significant differences were observed in the DFS and OS between the ECT arm and TP arm in TNBC with SPARC (≤ 50%), PD-L1 (-) PD-L1 (+), and BRCA mutation or BRCA wild (all P values > 0.05). CONCLUSION TP showed non-inferiority for DFS and OS compared with ECT in early TNBC. TP may be an effective alternative chemotherapy for TNBC patients whom the standard ECT regimen is not being used. TRAIL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT01150513.
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