New models of microsporidiosis: infections in Zebrafish, C. elegans, and honey bee

Conserved components of the macroautophagy machinery in Caenorhabditis elegans

Macroautophagy involves the sequestration of cytoplasmic contents in a double-membrane autophagosome and its subsequent delivery to lysosomes for degradation and recycling. In Caenorhabditis elegans, autophagy participates in diverse processes such as stress resistance, cell fate specification, tissue remodeling, aging, and adaptive immunity. Genetic screens in C. elegans have identified a set of metazoan-specific autophagy genes that form the basis for our molecular understanding of steps unique to the autophagy pathway in multicellular organisms. Suppressor screens have uncovered multiple mechanisms that modulate autophagy activity under physiological conditions. C. elegans also provides a model to investigate how autophagy activity is coordinately controlled at an organismal level. In this chapter, we will discuss the molecular machinery, regulation, and physiological functions of autophagy, and also methods utilized for monitoring autophagy during C. elegans development.

See the Unseen: Red-Emissive Carbon Dots for Visualizing the Nucleolar Structures in Two Model Animals and In Vivo Drug Toxicity

Nucleolus, which participates in many crucial cellular activities, is an ideal target for evaluating the state of a cell or an organism. Here, bright red-emissive carbon dots (termed CPCDs) with excitation-independent/polarity-dependent fluorescence emission are synthesized by a one-step hydrothermal reaction between congo red and p-phenylenediamine. The CPCDs can achieve wash-free, real-time, long-term, and high-quality nucleolus imaging in live cells, as well as in vivo imaging of two common model animals-zebrafish and Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Strikingly, CPCDs realize the nucleolus imaging of organs/flowing blood cells in zebrafish at a cellular level for the first time, and the superb nucleolus imaging of C. elegans suggests that the germ cells in the spermatheca probably have no intact nuclei. These previously unachieved imaging results of the cells/tissues/organs may guide the zebrafish-related studies and benefit the research of C. elegans development. More importantly, a novel strategy based on CPCDs for in vivo toxicity evaluation of materials/drugs (e.g., Ag⁺ ), which can visualize the otherwise unseen injuries in zebrafish, is developed. In conclusion, the CPCDs represent a robust tool for visualizing the structures and dynamic behaviors of live zebrafish and C. elegans, and may find important applications in cell biology and toxicology.

An intestinally secreted host factor promotes microsporidia invasion of C. elegans

Microsporidia are ubiquitous obligate intracellular pathogens of animals. These parasites often infect hosts through an oral route, but little is known about the function of host intestinal proteins that facilitate microsporidia invasion. To identify such factors necessary for infection by Nematocida parisii, a natural microsporidian pathogen of Caenorhabditis elegans, we performed a forward genetic screen to identify mutant animals that have a Fitness Advantage with Nematocida (Fawn). We isolated four fawn mutants that are resistant to Nematocida infection and contain mutations in T14E8.4, which we renamed aaim-1 (Antibacterial and Aids invasion by Microsporidia). Expression of AAIM-1 in the intestine of aaim-1 animals restores N. parisii infectivity and this rescue of infectivity is dependent upon AAIM-1 secretion. N. parisii spores in aaim-1 animals are improperly oriented in the intestinal lumen, leading to reduced levels of parasite invasion. Conversely, aaim-1 mutants display both increased colonization and susceptibility to the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa and overexpression ofaaim-1 reduces P. aeruginosa colonization. Competitive fitness assays show that aaim-1 mutants are favored in the presence of N. parisii but disadvantaged on P. aeruginosa compared to wild-type animals. Together, this work demonstrates how microsporidia exploits a secreted protein to promote host invasion. Our results also suggest evolutionary trade-offs may exist to optimizing host defense against multiple classes of pathogens.

Human microsporidian pathogen Encephalitozoon intestinalis impinges on enterocyte membrane trafficking and signaling

Microsporidia are a large phylum of obligate intracellular parasites. Approximately a dozen species of microsporidia infect humans, where they are responsible for a variety of diseases and occasionally death, especially in immunocompromised individuals. To better understand the impact of microsporidia on human cells, we infected human colonic Caco2 cells with Encephalitozoon intestinalis, and showed that these enterocyte cultures can be used to recapitulate the life cycle of the parasite, including the spread of infection with infective spores. Using transmission electron microscopy, we describe this lifecycle and demonstrate nuclear, mitochondrial and microvillar alterations by this pathogen. We also analyzed the transcriptome of infected cells to reveal host cell signaling alterations upon infection. These high-resolution imaging and transcriptional profiling analysis shed light on the impact of the microsporidial infection on its primary human target cell type.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first authors of the paper.

The ins and outs of host-microsporidia interactions during invasion, proliferation and exit

Microsporidia are a large group of fungal-related obligate intracellular parasites. They are responsible for infections in humans as well as in agriculturally and environmentally important animals. Although microsporidia are abundant in nature, many of the molecular mechanisms employed during infection have remained enigmatic. In this review, we highlight recent work showing how microsporidia invade, proliferate and exit from host cells. During invasion, microsporidia use spore wall and polar tube proteins to interact with host receptors and adhere to the host cell surface. In turn, the host has multiple defence mechanisms to prevent and eliminate these infections. Microsporidia encode numerous transporters and steal host nutrients to facilitate proliferation within host cells. They also encode many secreted proteins which may modulate host metabolism and inhibit host cell defence mechanisms. Spores exit the host in a non-lytic manner that is dependent on host actin and endocytic recycling proteins. Together, this work provides a fuller picture of the mechanisms that these fascinating organisms use to infect their hosts.

Measurements of Innate Immune Function in C. elegans

The microscopic nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as a powerful system to characterize evolutionarily ancient mechanisms of pathogen sensing, innate immune activation, and protective host responses. Experimentally, C. elegans can be infected with a wide variety of human pathogens, as well as with natural pathogens of worms that were isolated from wild-caught nematodes. Here, we focus on an experimental model of bacterial pathogenesis that utilizes the human opportunistic bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa and present an algorithm that can be used to study mechanisms of immune function in nematodes. An initial comparison of the susceptibility of a C. elegans mutant to P. aeruginosa infection with its normal lifespan permits an understanding of a mutant's effect on pathogen susceptibility in the context of potential pleotropic consequences on general worm fitness. Assessing the behavior of nematodes in the presence of P. aeruginosa can also help determine if a gene of interest modulates pathogen susceptibility by affecting the host's ability to avoid a pathogen. In addition, quantification of the pathogen load in the C. elegans intestine during infection, characterization of immune effector transcription that are regulated by host defense pathways and an initial assessment of tissue specificity of immune gene function can refine hypotheses about the mechanism of action of a gene of interest. Together, these protocols offer one approach to characterize novel host defense mechanisms in a simple metazoan host.

Development of Anncaliia algerae (Microsporidia) in Drosophila melanogaster

Representatives of the genus Anncaliia are known as natural parasites of dipteran and coleopteran insects, amphipod crustaceans, but also humans, primarily with immunodeficiency. Anncaliia algerae-caused fatal myositis is considered as an emergent infectious disease in humans. A. (=Nosema, Brachiola) algerae, the best studied species of the genus, demonstrates the broadest among microsporidia range of natural and experimental hosts, but it has never been propagated in Drosophila. We present ultrastructural analysis of development of A. algerae in visceral muscles and adipocytes of Drosophila melanogaster 2 wk after per oral experimental infection. We observed typical to Anncaliia spp. features of ultrastructure and cell pathology including spore morphology, characteristic extensions of the plasma membrane, and presence of "ridges" and appendages of tubular material at proliferative stages. Anncaliia algerae development in D. melanogaster was particularly similar to one of A. algerae and A.(Brachiola) vesicularum in humans with acute myositis. Given D. melanogaster is currently the most established genetic model, with a fully sequenced genome and easily available transgenic forms and genomic markers, a novel host-parasite system might provide new genetic tools to investigate host-pathogen interactions of A. algerae, as well to test antimicrosporidia drugs.

Genotype Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis of Enterocytozoon bieneusi Isolates from Stool Samples of Diarrheic Children

Among approximately 14 human-pathogenic microsporidian species, Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most common. It can inhabit the small intestines, causing chronic diarrhea and wasting syndrome. Prevalence and genotype data for E. bieneusi in humans is available for only a few provinces of China. In the current study, 93 fecal specimens were collected from diarrheic children in Chongqing. Polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer ( ITS) region of the E. bieneusi rDNA sequence identified 11 (11.83%) positive specimens. Among them, 8 (8.60%) are from patients of ages ranging from 2 mo to 6 yr old and 3 (3.23%) from patients 7 to 11 yr old. In total, 6 genotypes (4 novel genotypes and 2 known genotypes) were identified in this study. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all the genotypes identified in the present study belong to group 1, which previously has been described as a zoonotic group. This could mean these infections were acquired zoonotically, and it may be prudent to warn those people having close contact with animals of this potential risk.

A method for collecting eggs of Pseudocapillaria tomentosa (Nematoda: Capillariidae) from zebrafish Danio rerio and efficacy of heat and chlorine for killing the nematode's eggs

Pseudocapillaria tomentosa is a common pathogen of zebrafish (Danio rerio) in research facilities. We developed a method to collect and concentrate the nematode eggs using a modified sugar centrifugation method and documented their normal development. Embryonating stages with blastomere formation followed by elongation of the embryo prior to larva formation cumulated in developed larvae inside the eggs and hatching after 5-10 day. We then evaluated the efficacy of heat and chlorine to kill them based on a larva development assay. Eggs were exposed to 40, 50, 60 °C for 30 min and 1 h. Chlorine treatment was performed at 100, 250, 500, 1000, 3000 and 6000 ppm for 10 min. Samples exposed to 40 °C for 30 min or 1 h showed incidences of larvated eggs similar to controls. In contrast, no larvation occurred with eggs exposed to either 50 or 60 °C for 30 min or 1 h. Remarkably, in repeated assays, samples exposed to low doses of chlorine (100, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm for 10 min) showed significantly higher incidence of larvation than controls. Eggs treated with 3000 ppm for 10 min did not develop larvae, and no eggs were found after 6000 ppm treatment.

Flight behaviour of honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers is altered by initial infections of the fungal parasite Nosema apis

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) host a wide range of parasites, some being known contributors towards dramatic colony losses as reported over recent years. To counter parasitic threats, honey bees possess effective immune systems. Because immune responses are predicted to cause substantial physiological costs for infected individuals, they are expected to trade off with other life history traits that ultimately affect the performance and fitness of the entire colony. Here, we tested whether the initial onset of an infection negatively impacts the flight behaviour of honey bee workers, which is an energetically demanding behaviour and a key component of foraging activities. To do this, we infected workers with the widespread fungal pathogen Nosema apis, which is recognised and killed by the honey bee immune system. We compared their survival and flight behaviour with non-infected individuals from the same cohort and colony using radio frequency identification tags (RFID). We found that over a time frame of four days post infection, Nosema did not increase mortality but workers quickly altered their flight behaviour and performed more flights of shorter duration. We conclude that parasitic infections influence foraging activities, which could reduce foraging ranges of colonies and impact their ability to provide pollination services.

Microsporidia Intracellular Development Relies on Myc Interaction Network Transcription Factors in the Host

Microsporidia are ubiquitous parasites that infect a wide range of animal hosts, and these fungal-related microbes undergo their entire replicative lifecycle inside of host cells. Despite being widespread in the environment and causing medical and agricultural harm, virtually nothing is known about the host factors important to facilitate their growth and development inside of host cells. Here, we perform a genetic screen to identify host transcription factors important for development of the microsporidian pathogen Nematocida parisii inside intestinal cells of its natural host, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Through this screen, we identified the C. elegans Myc family of transcription factors as key host regulators of microsporidia growth and development. The Mad-like transcription factor MDL-1, and the Max-like transcription factors MXL-1 and MXL-2 promote pathogen levels, while the Myc-Mondo-like transcription factor MML-1 inhibits pathogen levels. We used epistasis analysis to show that MDL-1 and MXL-1, which are thought to function as a heterodimer, appear to be acting canonically. In contrast, MXL-2 and MML-1, which are also thought to function as a heterodimer, appear to be acting in separate pathways (noncanonically) in the context of pathogen infection. We also found that both MDL-1::GFP and MML-1::GFP are expressed in intestinal cells during infection. These findings provide novel insight into the host transcription factors that regulate microsporidia development.

Multiyear Survey of Coccidia, Cryptosporidia, Microsporidia, Histomona, and Hematozoa in Wild Quail in the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma, USA

We developed nested PCR protocols and performed a multiyear survey on the prevalence of several protozoan parasites in wild northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma (i.e. fecal pellets, bird intestines and blood smears collected between 2010 and 2013). Coccidia, cryptosporidia, and microsporidia were detected in 46.2%, 11.7%, and 44.0% of the samples (n = 687), whereas histomona and hematozoa were undetected. Coccidia consisted of one major and two minor Eimeria species. Cryptosporidia were represented by a major unknown Cryptosporidium species and Cryptosporidium baileyi. Detected microsporidia species were highly diverse, in which only 11% were native avian parasites including Encephalitozoon hellem and Encephalitozoon cuniculi, whereas 33% were closely related to species from insects (e.g. Antonospora, Liebermannia, and Sporanauta). This survey suggests that coccidia infections are a significant risk factor in the health of wild quail while cryptosporidia and microsporidia may be much less significant than coccidiosis. In addition, the presence of E. hellem and E. cuniculi (known to cause opportunistic infections in humans) suggests that wild quail could serve as a reservoir for human microsporidian pathogens, and individuals with compromised or weakened immunity should probably take precautions while directly handling wild quail.

Small GTPases promote actin coat formation on microsporidian pathogens traversing the apical membrane of Caenorhabditis elegans intestinal cells

Many intracellular pathogens co-opt actin in host cells, but little is known about these interactions in vivo. We study the in vivo trafficking and exit of the microsporidian Nematocida parisii, which is an intracellular pathogen that infects intestinal cells of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We recently demonstrated that N. parisii uses directional exocytosis to escape out of intestinal cells into the intestinal tract. Here, we show that an intestinal-specific isoform of C. elegans actin called ACT-5 forms coats around membrane compartments that contain single exocytosing spores, and that these coats appear to form after fusion with the apical membrane. We performed a genetic screen for host factors required for actin coat formation and identified small GTPases important for this process. Through analysis of animals defective in these factors, we found that actin coats are not required for pathogen exit although they may boost exocytic output. Later during infection, we find that ACT-5 also forms coats around membrane-bound vesicles that contain multiple spores. These vesicles are likely formed by clathrin-dependent compensatory endocytosis to retrieve membrane material that has been trafficked to the apical membrane as part of the exocytosis process. These findings provide insight into microsporidia interaction with host cells, and provide novel in vivo examples of the manner in which intracellular pathogens co-opt host actin during their life cycle.

A wild C. elegans strain has enhanced epithelial immunity to a natural microsporidian parasite

Microbial pathogens impose selective pressures on their hosts, and combatting these pathogens is fundamental to the propagation of a species. Innate immunity is an ancient system that provides the foundation for pathogen resistance, with epithelial cells in humans increasingly appreciated to play key roles in innate defense. Here, we show that the nematode C. elegans displays genetic variation in epithelial immunity against intestinal infection by its natural pathogen, Nematocida parisii. This pathogen belongs to the microsporidia phylum, which comprises a large phylum of over 1400 species of fungal-related parasites that can infect all animals, including humans, but are poorly understood. Strikingly, we find that a wild C. elegans strain from Hawaii is able to clear intracellular infection by N. parisii, with this ability restricted to young larval animals. Notably, infection of older larvae does not impair progeny production, while infection of younger larvae does. The early-life immunity of Hawaiian larvae enables them to produce more progeny later in life, providing a selective advantage in a laboratory setting—in the presence of parasite it is able to out-compete a susceptible strain in just a few generations. We show that enhanced immunity is dominant to susceptibility, and we use quantitative trait locus mapping to identify four genomic loci associated with resistance. Furthermore, we generate near-isogenic strains to directly demonstrate that two of these loci influence resistance. Thus, our findings show that early-life immunity of C. elegans against microsporidia is a complex trait that enables the host to produce more progeny later in life, likely improving its evolutionary success.

Infectious diseases caused by microbes create some of the strongest forces in evolution, by killing their hosts, and impairing their ability to produce progeny. Microsporidia are very common microbes that cause disease in all animals, including roundworms, insects, fish and people. We investigated microsporidia infection in the roundworm C. elegans, and found that strains from diverse parts of the world have differing levels of resistance against infection. Interestingly, a C. elegans strain from Hawaii can clear infection but only during the earliest stage of life. This resistance appears to be evolutionarily important, because it is during this early stage of life when infection can greatly reduce the number of progeny produced by the host. Consistent with this idea, if the Hawaiian strain is infected when young, it will ultimately produce more progeny than a susceptible strain of C. elegans. We find that this early life resistance of Hawaiian animals is due to a combination of genetic regions, which together provide enhanced immunity against a natural pathogen, thus enabling this strain to have more offspring.

Utilization of zebrafish for intravital study of eukaryotic pathogen-host interactions

Unique imaging tools and practical advantages have made zebrafish a popular model to investigate in vivo host-pathogen interactions. These studies have uncovered details of the mechanisms involved in several human infections. Until recently, studies using this versatile host were limited to viral and prokaryotic pathogens. Eukaryotic pathogens are a diverse group with a major impact on the human and fish populations. The relationships of eukaryote pathogens with their hosts are complex and many aspects remain obscure. The small and transparent zebrafish, with its conserved immune system and amenability to genetic manipulation, make it an exciting model for quantitative study of the core strategies of eukaryotic pathogens and their hosts. The only thing to do now is realize its potential for advancement of biomedical and aquaculture research.

Ubiquitin-mediated response to microsporidia and virus infection in C. elegans

Microsporidia comprise a phylum of over 1400 species of obligate intracellular pathogens that can infect almost all animals, but little is known about the host response to these parasites. Here we use the whole-animal host C. elegans to show an in vivo role for ubiquitin-mediated response to the microsporidian species Nematocida parisii, as well to the Orsay virus, another natural intracellular pathogen of C. elegans. We analyze gene expression of C. elegans in response to N. parisii, and find that it is similar to response to viral infection. Notably, we find an upregulation of SCF ubiquitin ligase components, such as the cullin ortholog cul-6, which we show is important for ubiquitin targeting of N. parisii cells in the intestine. We show that ubiquitylation components, the proteasome, and the autophagy pathway are all important for defense against N. parisii infection. We also find that SCF ligase components like cul-6 promote defense against viral infection, where they have a more robust role than against N. parisii infection. This difference may be due to suppression of the host ubiquitylation system by N. parisii: when N. parisii is crippled by anti-microsporidia drugs, the host can more effectively target pathogen cells for ubiquitylation. Intriguingly, inhibition of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) increases expression of infection-upregulated SCF ligase components, indicating that a trigger for transcriptional response to intracellular infection by N. parisii and virus may be perturbation of the UPS. Altogether, our results demonstrate an in vivo role for ubiquitin-mediated defense against microsporidian and viral infections in C. elegans.

Unusual fluorescent granulomas and myonecrosis in Danio rerio infected by the microsporidian pathogen Pseudoloma neurophilia

Abstract Zebrafish are a powerful model organism to study disease. Like other animal models, Danio rerio colonies are at risk of pathogenic infection. Microsporidia, a group of intracellular fungus-like parasites, are one potential threat. Microsporidian spores germinate and spread causing pathological changes in the central nervous system, skeletal muscle, and other anatomic sites. Infection can impair breeding, cause other morbidities, and ultimately be lethal. Previously, detecting microsporidia in zebrafish has required sacrificing animals for histopathologic analysis or microscopic examination of fresh tissues. Here, we show that fish with microsporidial infection often have autofluorescent nodules, and we demonstrate infectious spread from nodule-bearing fish to healthy D. rerio. Histologic analyses revealed that fluorescent nodules are granulomatous lesions composed of spores, degenerating muscle, and inflammatory cells. Additional histologic staining verified that microsporidia were present, specifically, Pseudoloma neurophilia. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based testing confirmed the presence of P. neurophilia. Further PCR testing excluded infection by another common zebrafish microsporidial parasite, Pleistophora hyphessobryconis. Collectively, these studies show that P. neurophilia can induce skeletal muscle granulomas in D. rerio, a previously unknown finding. Moreover, since granulomas autofluoresce, microscopic screening for P. neurophilia infection is feasible in live fish, avoiding the need to sacrifice fish for surveillance for this pathogen.

A metatranscriptomic approach to the identification of microbiota associated with the ant Formica exsecta

Social insects live in cooperative colonies, often in high densities and with closely related individuals, and interact using social contact behaviours. Compared to solitary insects, social insects have evolved multi-level immunity that includes immune responses common to holometabolous insects, and social immunity, which is exclusive to social taxa. This suggests that social insects may be subject to high pathogen pressure, yet relatively little is known about the range of symbiotic and pathogenic microbial communities that associate with social insects. In this study we examined transcriptome data generated from the ant Formica exsecta for sequences identifying as microbes (or other organisms potentially of non-ant origin). Sequences showing homology to two viruses and several other potentially or obligate intracellular organisms, such as Wolbachia, Arsenophonus, Entomoplasmatales and Microsporidia, were present in the transcriptome data. These homologous sequence matches correspond to genera/species that have previously been associated with a variety of insects, including social insects. There were also sequences with identity to several other microbes such as common moulds and soil bacteria. We conclude that this sequence data provides a starting point for a deeper understanding of the biological interactions between a species of ant and the micro- and macrobiotic communities that it potentially encounters.

Preparing a discreet escape: Microsporidia reorganize host cytoskeleton prior to non-lytic exit from C. elegans intestinal cells

Intracellular pathogens commonly invade and replicate inside of intestinal cells and exit from these cells is a crucial step in pathogen transmission. For convenience, studies of intracellular pathogens are often conducted using in vitro cell culture systems, which unfortunately lack important features of polarized, intact intestinal epithelial cells. The nematode C. elegans provides a tractable system to study intracellular pathogens in vivo, where features of differentiated epithelial cells are easily visualized. In a recent paper, we used C. elegans as a host organism to study the exit strategy of Nematocida parisii, a naturally occurring intracellular pathogen in the microsporidia phylum. We showed that N. parisii remodels the C. elegans host cytoskeleton, and then exits host cells in an actin-dependent, non-lytic fashion. These findings illuminate key details about the transmission of microsporidia, which are poorly understood but ubiquitous pathogens. More generally, these findings have implications for exit strategies used by other intracellular pathogens that also infect epithelial cells.

New role for DCR-1/dicer in Caenorhabditis elegans innate immunity against the highly virulent bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis DB27

Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxins that target invertebrates, including Caenorhabditis elegans. Virulence of Bacillus strains is often highly specific, such that B. thuringiensis strain DB27 is highly pathogenic to C. elegans but shows no virulence for another model nematode, Pristionchus pacificus. To uncover the underlying mechanisms of the differential responses of the two nematodes to B. thuringiensis DB27 and to reveal the C. elegans defense mechanisms against this pathogen, we conducted a genetic screen for C. elegans mutants resistant to B. thuringiensis DB27. Here, we describe a B. thuringiensis DB27-resistant C. elegans mutant that is identical to nasp-1, which encodes the C. elegans homolog of the nuclear-autoantigenic-sperm protein. Gene expression analysis indicated a substantial overlap between the genes downregulated in the nasp-1 mutant and targets of C. elegans dcr-1/Dicer, suggesting that dcr-1 is repressed in nasp-1 mutants, which was confirmed by quantitative PCR. Consistent with this, the nasp-1 mutant exhibits RNA interference (RNAi) deficiency and reduced longevity similar to those of a dcr-1 mutant. Building on these surprising findings, we further explored a potential role for dcr-1 in C. elegans innate immunity. We show that dcr-1 mutant alleles deficient in microRNA (miRNA) processing, but not those deficient only in RNAi, are resistant to B. thuringiensis DB27. Furthermore, dcr-1 overexpression rescues the nasp-1 mutant's resistance, suggesting that repression of dcr-1 determines the nasp-1 mutant's resistance. Additionally, we identified the collagen-encoding gene col-92 as one of the downstream effectors of nasp-1 that play an important role in resistance to DB27. Taken together, these results uncover a previously unknown role for DCR-1/Dicer in C. elegans antibacterial immunity that is largely associated with miRNA processing.

Single and mixed-species trypanosome and microsporidia infections elicit distinct, ephemeral cellular and humoral immune responses in honey bees

Frequently encountered parasite species impart strong selective pressures on host immune system evolution and are more apt to concurrently infect the same host, yet molecular impacts in light of this are often overlooked. We have contrasted immune responses in honey bees to two common eukaryotic endoparasites by establishing single and mixed-species infections using the long-associated parasite Crithidia mellificae and the emergent parasite Nosema ceranae. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to screen host immune gene expression at 9 time points post inoculation. Systemic responses in abdomens during early stages of parasite establishment revealed conserved receptor (Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule, Dscam and nimrod C1, nimC1), signaling (MyD88 and Imd) and antimicrobial peptide (AMP) effector (Defensin 2) responses. Late, established infections were distinct with a refined 2 AMP response to C. mellificae that contrasted starkly with a 5 AMP response to N. ceranae. Mixed species infections induced a moderate 3 AMPs. Transcription in gut tissues highlighted important local roles for Dscam toward both parasites and Imd signaling toward N. ceranae. At both systemic and local levels Dscam, MyD88 and Imd transcription was consistently correlated based on clustering analysis. Significant gene suppression occurred in two cases from midgut to ileum tissue: Dscam was lowered during mixed infections compared to N. ceranae infections and both C. mellificae and mixed infections had reduced nimC1 transcription compared to uninfected controls. We show that honey bees rapidly mount complex immune responses to both Nosema and Crithidia that are dynamic over time and that mixed-species infections significantly alter local and systemic immune gene transcription.

Caenorhabditis elegans as a model for intracellular pathogen infection

The genetically tractable nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a convenient host for studies of pathogen infection. With the recent identification of two types of natural intracellular pathogens of C. elegans, this host now provides the opportunity to examine interactions and defence against intracellular pathogens in a whole-animal model for infection. C. elegans is the natural host for a genus of microsporidia, which comprise a phylum of fungal-related pathogens of widespread importance for agriculture and medicine. More recently, C. elegans has been shown to be a natural host for viruses related to the Nodaviridae family. Both microsporidian and viral pathogens infect the C. elegans intestine, which is composed of cells that share striking similarities to human intestinal epithelial cells. Because C. elegans nematodes are transparent, these infections provide a unique opportunity to visualize differentiated intestinal cells in vivo during the course of intracellular infection. Together, these two natural pathogens of C. elegans provide powerful systems in which to study microbial pathogenesis and host responses to intracellular infection.

Microsporidia and 'the art of living together'

Parasitism, aptly defined as one of the 'living-together' strategies (Trager, 1986), presents a dynamic system in which the parasite and its host are under evolutionary pressure to evolve new and specific adaptations, thus enabling the coexistence of the two closely interacting partners. Microsporidia are very frequently encountered obligatory intracellular protistan parasites that can infect both animals and some protists and are a consummate example of various aspects of the 'living-together' strategy. Microsporidia, relatives of fungi in the superkingdom Opisthokonta, belong to the relatively small group of parasites for which the host cell cytoplasm is the site of both reproduction and maturation. The structural and physiological reduction of their vegetative stage, together with the manipulation of host cell physiology, enables microsporidia to live in the cytosolic environment for most of their life cycle in a way resembling endocytobionts. The ability to form structurally complex spores and the invention and assembly of a unique injection mechanism enable microsporidia to disperse within host tissues and between host organisms, resulting in long-lasting infections. Microsporidia have adapted their genomes to the intracellular way of life, evolved strategies how to obtain nutrients directly from the host and how to manipulate not only the infected cells, but also the hosts themselves. The enormous variability of host organisms and their tissues provide microsporidian parasites a virtually limitless terrain for diversification and ecological expansion. This review attempts to present a general overview of microsporidia, emphasising some less known and/or more recently discovered facets of their biology.

Microsporidian genome analysis reveals evolutionary strategies for obligate intracellular growth

Microsporidia comprise a large phylum of obligate intracellular eukaryotes that are fungal-related parasites responsible for widespread disease, and here we address questions about microsporidia biology and evolution. We sequenced three microsporidian genomes from two species, Nematocida parisii and Nematocida sp1, which are natural pathogens of Caenorhabditis nematodes and provide model systems for studying microsporidian pathogenesis. We performed deep sequencing of transcripts from a time course of N. parisii infection. Examination of pathogen gene expression revealed compact transcripts and a dramatic takeover of host cells by Nematocida. We also performed phylogenomic analyses of Nematocida and other microsporidian genomes to refine microsporidian phylogeny and identify evolutionary events of gene loss, acquisition, and modification. In particular, we found that all microsporidia lost the tumor-suppressor gene retinoblastoma, which we speculate could accelerate the parasite cell cycle and increase the mutation rate. We also found that microsporidia acquired transporters that could import nucleosides to fuel rapid growth. In addition, microsporidian hexokinases gained secretion signal sequences, and in a functional assay these were sufficient to export proteins out of the cell; thus hexokinase may be targeted into the host cell to reprogram it toward biosynthesis. Similar molecular changes appear during formation of cancer cells and may be evolutionary strategies adopted independently by microsporidia to proliferate rapidly within host cells. Finally, analysis of genome polymorphisms revealed evidence for a sexual cycle that may provide genetic diversity to alleviate problems caused by clonal growth. Together these events may explain the emergence and success of these diverse intracellular parasites.

Fly culture collapse disorder: detection, prophylaxis and eradication of the microsporidian parasite Tubulinosema ratisbonensis infecting Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is a robust model to investigate many biological problems. It is however prone to some infections, which may endanger fly stocks if left unchecked for. One such infection is caused by an obligate fungal intracellular parasite, Tubulinosema ratisbonensis, which can be found in laboratory stocks. Here, we identify and briefly characterize a T. ratisbonensis strain that was infesting our Drosophila cultures and that required intensive measures to contain and eradicate the infection. We describe the phenotypes of infested stocks. We also report PCR-based techniques that allow the detection of infested stocks with a high sensitivity. We have developed a high-throughput qPCR assay that allows the efficient parallel screening of a large number of potentially-infested stocks. We also have investigated several prophylactic measures to prevent the further contamination of stocks, namely UV-exposure, ethanol treatment, bleaching, and desiccation. Bleaching was found to kill all spores. Other treatments were less effective but were found to be sufficient to prevent further contamination of noninfested stocks. Two treatments were efficacious in curing infested stocks (1) bleaching of eggs and subsequent raising of the larvae in clean vials; (2) fumagillin treatment. These cures only work on stocks that have not become too weak to withstand the procedures.

The protein import pore Tom40 in the microsporidian Nosema bombycis

Microsporidia, an unusual group of unicellular parasites related to fungi, possess a highly reduced mitochondrion known as the mitosome. Since mitosomes lack an organellar genome, their proteins must be translated in the cytosol before being imported into the mitosome via translocases. We have identified a Tom40 gene (NbTom40), the main component of the translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane, in the genome of the microsporidian Nosema bombycis. NbTom40 is reduced in size, but it is predicted to form a β-barrel structure composed of 19 β-strands. Phylogenetic analysis confirms that NbTom40 forms a clade with Tom40 sequences from other species, distinct from a related clade of voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs). The NbTom40 contains a β-signal motif that the polar residue is substituted by glycine. Furthermore, we show that expression of NbTom40, as a GFP fusion protein within yeast cells, directs GFP to mitochondria of yeast. These findings suggest that NbTom40 may serve as an import channel of the microsporidian mitosome and facilitate protein translocation into this organelle.

Caenorhabditis elegans, a model organism for investigating immunity

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has been a powerful experimental organism for almost half a century. Over the past 10 years, researchers have begun to exploit the power of C. elegans to investigate the biology of a number of human pathogens. This work has uncovered mechanisms of host immunity and pathogen virulence that are analogous to those involved during pathogenesis in humans or other animal hosts, as well as novel immunity mechanisms which appear to be unique to the worm. More recently, these investigations have uncovered details of the natural pathogens of C. elegans, including the description of a novel intracellular microsporidian parasite as well as new nodaviruses, the first identification of viral infections of this nematode. In this review, we consider the application of C. elegans to human infectious disease research, as well as consider the nematode response to these natural pathogens.

Immune defense mechanisms in the Caenorhabditis elegans intestinal epithelium

Intestinal epithelial cells provide an essential line of defense for Caernohabditis elegans against ingested pathogens. Because nematodes consume microorganisms as their food source, there has presumably been selection pressure to evolve and maintain immune defense mechanisms within the intestinal epithelium. Here we review recent advances that further define the immune signaling network within these cells and suggest mechanisms used by the nematode to monitor for infection. In reviewing studies of pathogenesis that use this simple model system, we hope to illustrate some of the basic principles of epithelial immunity that may also be of relevance in higher order hosts.

Non-lytic, actin-based exit of intracellular parasites from C. elegans intestinal cells

The intestine is a common site for invasion by intracellular pathogens, but little is known about how pathogens restructure and exit intestinal cells in vivo. The natural microsporidian parasite N. parisii invades intestinal cells of the nematode C. elegans, progresses through its life cycle, and then exits cells in a transmissible spore form. Here we show that N. parisii causes rearrangements of host actin inside intestinal cells as part of a novel parasite exit strategy. First, we show that N. parisii infection causes ectopic localization of the normally apical-restricted actin to the basolateral side of intestinal cells, where it often forms network-like structures. Soon after this actin relocalization, we find that gaps appear in the terminal web, a conserved cytoskeletal structure that could present a barrier to exit. Reducing actin expression creates terminal web gaps in the absence of infection, suggesting that infection-induced actin relocalization triggers gap formation. We show that terminal web gaps form at a distinct stage of infection, precisely timed to precede spore exit, and that all contagious animals exhibit gaps. Interestingly, we find that while perturbations in actin can create these gaps, actin is not required for infection progression or spore formation, but actin is required for spore exit. Finally, we show that despite large numbers of spores exiting intestinal cells, this exit does not cause cell lysis. These results provide insight into parasite manipulation of the host cytoskeleton and non-lytic escape from intestinal cells in vivo.

The intestine is a common site for invasion by pathogens, but little is known about how pathogens exit out of live intestinal cells in order to spread and propagate. One group of parasites that often invades the intestine is the microsporidia, which comprise a phylum of over 1200 fungal-like species that can cause disease in humans, as well as in agriculturally significant organisms such as fish, silkworm and honey bee. Here, we investigated a natural microsporidian infection in live intestinal cells of the roundworm C. elegans. We discovered a novel exit strategy used by microsporidia to restructure the cytoskeleton of intestinal cells, involving relocalization of actin and reorganization of a structure called the terminal web, which may be a barrier to exit. In addition, we found that despite large numbers of parasites exiting out of intestinal cells, this process does not cause cells to burst. Our findings indicate that microsporidia, which are completely dependent on their hosts for replication, have evolved a regulated and non-damaging mechanism of exit that shares similarities with strategies used by evolutionarily distant bacterial pathogens. This study provides new insights into the methods by which pathogens restructure live intestinal cells to facilitate their spread and propagation.