1
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Casanova JL, MacMicking JD, Nathan CF. Interferon- γ and infectious diseases: Lessons and prospects. Science 2024; 384:eadl2016. [PMID: 38635718 DOI: 10.1126/science.adl2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Infectious diseases continue to claim many lives. Prevention of morbidity and mortality from these diseases would benefit not just from new medicines and vaccines but also from a better understanding of what constitutes protective immunity. Among the major immune signals that mobilize host defense against infection is interferon-γ (IFN-γ), a protein secreted by lymphocytes. Forty years ago, IFN-γ was identified as a macrophage-activating factor, and, in recent years, there has been a resurgent interest in IFN-γ biology and its role in human defense. Here we assess the current understanding of IFN-γ, revisit its designation as an "interferon," and weigh its prospects as a therapeutic against globally pervasive microbial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Laurent Casanova
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, 75015 Paris, France
- Imagine Institute, Paris Cité University, 75015 Paris, France
- Department of Pediatrics, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, 75015 Paris, France
| | - John D MacMicking
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Yale Systems Biology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, CT 06477, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Carl F Nathan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
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2
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Mandel CG, Sanchez SE, Monahan CC, Phuklia W, Omsland A. Metabolism and physiology of pathogenic bacterial obligate intracellular parasites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1284701. [PMID: 38585652 PMCID: PMC10995303 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1284701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacterial obligate intracellular parasites (BOIPs) represent an exclusive group of bacterial pathogens that all depend on invasion of a eukaryotic host cell to reproduce. BOIPs are characterized by extensive adaptation to their respective replication niches, regardless of whether they replicate within the host cell cytoplasm or within specialized replication vacuoles. Genome reduction is also a hallmark of BOIPs that likely reflects streamlining of metabolic processes to reduce the need for de novo biosynthesis of energetically costly metabolic intermediates. Despite shared characteristics in lifestyle, BOIPs show considerable diversity in nutrient requirements, metabolic capabilities, and general physiology. In this review, we compare metabolic and physiological processes of prominent pathogenic BOIPs with special emphasis on carbon, energy, and amino acid metabolism. Recent advances are discussed in the context of historical views and opportunities for discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron G. Mandel
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Savannah E. Sanchez
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Colleen C. Monahan
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Weerawat Phuklia
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit, Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao People’s Democratic Republic
| | - Anders Omsland
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
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3
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Kaushal D, Singh DK, Mehra S. Immune Responses in Lung Granulomas during Mtb/HIV Co-Infection: Implications for Pathogenesis and Therapy. Pathogens 2023; 12:1120. [PMID: 37764928 PMCID: PMC10534770 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV and TB are the cause of significant worldwide mortality and pose a grave danger to the global public health. TB is the leading cause of death in HIV-infected persons, with one in four deaths attributable to TB. While the majority of healthy individuals infected with M. tuberculosis (Mtb) are able to control the infection, co-infection with HIV increases the risk of TB infection progressing to TB disease by over 20-fold. While antiretroviral therapy (ART), the cornerstone of HIV care, decreases the incidence of TB in HIV-uninfected people, this remains 4- to 7-fold higher after ART in HIV-co-infected individuals in TB-endemic settings, regardless of the duration of therapy. Thus, the immune control of Mtb infection in Mtb/HIV-co-infected individuals is not fully restored by ART. We do not fully understand the reasons why Mtb/HIV-co-infected individuals maintain a high susceptibility to the reactivation of LTBI, despite an effective viral control by ART. A deep understanding of the molecular mechanisms that govern HIV-induced reactivation of TB is essential to develop improved treatments and vaccines for the Mtb/HIV-co-infected population. We discuss potential strategies for the mitigation of the observed chronic immune activation in combination with both anti-TB and anti-retroviral approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Smriti Mehra
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
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4
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Shen Q, Gonzalez-Mireles A, Ray SC, Rappleye CA. Histoplasma capsulatum Relies on Tryptophan Biosynthesis To Proliferate within the Macrophage Phagosome. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0005923. [PMID: 37184383 PMCID: PMC10269170 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00059-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Histoplasma capsulatum yeasts reside and proliferate within the macrophage phagosome during infection. This nutrient-depleted phagosomal environment imposes challenges to Histoplasma yeasts for nutrition acquisition. Histoplasma yeasts require all 20 amino acids, which can be formed by de novo biosynthesis and/or acquired directly from the phagosomal environment. We investigated how Histoplasma obtains aromatic amino acids (i.e., phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan) within the phagosome during infection of macrophages. Depletion of key enzymes of the phenylalanine or tyrosine biosynthetic pathway neither impaired Histoplasma's ability to proliferate within macrophages nor resulted in attenuated virulence in vivo. However, loss of tryptophan biosynthesis resulted in reduced growth within macrophages and severely attenuated virulence in vivo. Together, these results indicate that phenylalanine and tyrosine, but not tryptophan, are available to Histoplasma within the macrophage phagosome. The herbicide glyphosate, which targets 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase of the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway, inhibited Histoplasma yeast growth, and this growth inhibition was partially reversed by aromatic amino acid supplementation or overexpression of ARO1. These results suggest that the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway is a candidate drug target to develop novel antifungal therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Shen
- Rhodes College, Department of Biology, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | | | - Stephanie C. Ray
- Ohio State University, Department of Microbiology, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Chad A. Rappleye
- Ohio State University, Department of Microbiology, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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5
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Duncan-Lowey J, Crabill E, Jarret A, Reed SCO, Roy CR. The Coxiella burnetii effector EmcB is a deubiquitinase that inhibits RIG-I signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2217602120. [PMID: 36893270 PMCID: PMC10089202 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2217602120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotes have cytosolic surveillance systems to detect invading microorganisms and initiate protective immune responses. In turn, host-adapted pathogens have evolved strategies to modulate these surveillance systems, which can promote dissemination and persistence in the host. The obligate intracellular pathogen Coxiella burnetii infects mammalian hosts without activating many innate immune sensors. The Defect in Organelle Trafficking/Intracellular Multiplication (Dot/Icm) protein secretion system is necessary for C. burnetii to establish a vacuolar niche inside of host cells, which sequesters these bacteria in a specialized organelle that could evade host surveillance systems. However, bacterial secretion systems often introduce agonists of immune sensors into the host cytosol during infection. For instance, nucleic acids are introduced to the host cytosol by the Dot/Icm system of Legionella pneumophila, which results in type I interferon production. Despite host infection requiring a homologous Dot/Icm system, C. burnetii does not induce type I interferon production during infection. Here, it was found that type I interferons are detrimental to C. burnetii infection and that C. burnetii blocks type I interferon production mediated by retionic acid inducible gene I (RIG-I) signaling. Two Dot/Icm effector proteins, EmcA and EmcB, are required for C. burnetii inhibition of RIG-I signaling. EmcB is sufficient to block RIG-I signaling and is a ubiquitin-specific cysteine protease capable of deconjugating ubiquitin chains from RIG-I that are necessary for signaling. EmcB preferentially cleaves K63-linked ubiquitin chains of three or more monomers, which represent ubiquitin chains that potently activate RIG-I signaling. Identification of a deubiquitinase encoded by C. burnetii provides insights into how a host-adapted pathogen antagonizes immune surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Duncan-Lowey
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT06536
| | - Emerson Crabill
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT06536
- Department of Biology, Angelo State University, San Angelo, TX76909
| | - Abigail Jarret
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT06536
| | - Shawna C. O. Reed
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT06536
| | - Craig R. Roy
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT06536
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Ganesan S, Alvarez NN, Steiner S, Fowler KM, Corona AK, Roy CR. Syntaxin 11 Contributes to the Interferon-Inducible Restriction of Coxiella burnetii Intracellular Infection. mBio 2023; 14:e0354522. [PMID: 36728431 PMCID: PMC9972978 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03545-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a limited understanding of host defense mechanisms targeting intracellular pathogens that proliferate in a lysosome. Coxiella burnetii is a model bacterial pathogen capable of replicating in the hydrolytic and acidic environment of the lysosome. It has been shown that gamma interferon (IFNγ)-stimulated host cells restrict C. burnetii replication by a mechanism that involves host IDO1 depletion of tryptophan. Host cells deficient in IDO1 activity, however, retain the ability to restrict C. burnetii replication when stimulated with IFNγ, which suggests additional mechanisms of host defense. This study identified syntaxin 11 (STX11) as a host protein that contributes to IFNγ-mediated suppression of C. burnetii replication. STX11 is a SNARE protein; SNARE proteins are proteins that mediate fusion of host vesicles with specific subcellular organelles. Depletion of STX11 using either small interfering RNA (siRNA)- or CRISPR-based approaches enhanced C. burnetii replication intracellularly. Stable expression of STX11 reduced C. burnetii replication in epithelial cells and macrophages, which indicates that this STX11-dependent cell-autonomous response is operational in multiple cell types and can function independently of other IFNγ-induced factors. Fluorescently tagged STX11 localized to the Coxiella-containing vacuole (CCV), and STX11 restriction was found to involve an interaction with STX8. Thus, STX11 regulates a vesicle fusion pathway that limits replication of this intracellular pathogen in a lysosome-derived organelle. IMPORTANCE Cell intrinsic defense mechanisms are used by eukaryotic cells to restrict the replication and dissemination of pathogens. This study identified a human protein called syntaxin 11 (STX11) as a host restriction factor that inhibits the intracellular replication of Coxiella burnetii. Syntaxins regulate the delivery of cargo inside vesicles by promoting specific membrane fusion events between donor and acceptor vesicles. Data presented here demonstrate that STX11 regulates an immunological defense pathway that controls replication of pathogens in lysosome-derived organelles, which provides new insight into the function of this SNARE protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandhya Ganesan
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Natalie N. Alvarez
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Samuel Steiner
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Karen M. Fowler
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Abigail K. Corona
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Craig R. Roy
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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7
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Matthiesen S, Christiansen B, Jahnke R, Zaeck LM, Karger A, Finke S, Franzke K, Knittler MR. TGF-β/IFN-γ Antagonism in Subversion and Self-Defense of Phase II Coxiella burnetii -Infected Dendritic Cells. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0032322. [PMID: 36688662 PMCID: PMC9933720 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00323-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) belong to the first line of innate defense and come into early contact with invading pathogens, including the zoonotic bacterium Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever. However, the pathogen-host cell interactions in C. burnetii-infected DCs, particularly the role of mechanisms of immune subversion beyond virulent phase I lipopolysaccharide (LPS), as well as the contribution of cellular self-defense strategies, are not understood. Using phase II Coxiella-infected DCs, we show that impairment of DC maturation and MHC I downregulation is caused by autocrine release and action of immunosuppressive transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β). Our study demonstrates that IFN-γ reverses TGF-β impairment of maturation/MHC I presentation in infected DCs and activates bacterial elimination, predominantly by inducing iNOS/NO. Induced NO synthesis strongly affects bacterial growth and infectivity. Moreover, our studies hint that Coxiella-infected DCs might be able to protect themselves from mitotoxic NO by switching from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis, thus ensuring survival in self-defense against C. burnetii. Our results provide new insights into DC subversion by Coxiella and the IFN-γ-mediated targeting of C. burnetii during early steps in the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svea Matthiesen
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Bahne Christiansen
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Rico Jahnke
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Luca M. Zaeck
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Axel Karger
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Stefan Finke
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Kati Franzke
- Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Michael R. Knittler
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Isle of Riems, Germany
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Singh B, Moodley C, Singh DK, Escobedo RA, Sharan R, Arora G, Ganatra SR, Shivanna V, Gonzalez O, Hall-Ursone S, Dick EJ, Kaushal D, Alvarez X, Mehra S. Inhibition of indoleamine dioxygenase leads to better control of tuberculosis adjunctive to chemotherapy. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e163101. [PMID: 36692017 PMCID: PMC9977315 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.163101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), a robust immunosuppressant, is significantly induced in macaque tuberculosis (TB) granulomas, where it is expressed on IFN-responsive macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. IDO expression is also highly induced in human TB granulomas, and products of its activity are detected in patients with TB. In vivo blockade of IDO activity resulted in the reorganization of the granuloma with substantially greater T cells being recruited to the core of the lesions. This correlated with better immune control of TB and reduced lung M. tuberculosis burdens. To study if the IDO blockade strategy can be translated to a bona fide host-directed therapy in the clinical setting of TB, we studied the effect of IDO inhibitor 1-methyl-d-tryptophan adjunctive to suboptimal anti-TB chemotherapy. While two-thirds of controls and one-third of chemotherapy-treated animals progressed to active TB, inhibition of IDO adjunctive to the same therapy protected macaques from TB, as measured by clinical, radiological, and microbiological attributes. Although chemotherapy improved proliferative T cell responses, adjunctive inhibition of IDO further enhanced the recruitment of effector T cells to the lung. These results strongly suggest the possibility that IDO inhibition can be attempted adjunctive to anti-TB chemotherapy in clinical trials.
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MicroRNAs Contribute to Host Response to Coxiella burnetii. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0019922. [PMID: 36537791 PMCID: PMC9872603 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00199-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of small noncoding RNAs, are critical to gene regulation in eukaryotes. They are involved in modulating a variety of physiological processes, including the host response to intracellular infections. Little is known about miRNA functions during infection by Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of human Q fever. This bacterial pathogen establishes a large replicative vacuole within macrophages by manipulating host processes such as apoptosis and autophagy. We investigated miRNA expression in C. burnetii-infected macrophages and identified several miRNAs that were down- or upregulated during infection. We further explored the functions of miR-143-3p, an miRNA whose expression is downregulated in macrophages infected with C. burnetii, and show that increasing the abundance of this miRNA in human cells results in increased apoptosis and reduced autophagy-conditions that are unfavorable to C. burnetii intracellular growth. In sum, this study demonstrates that C. burnetii infection elicits a robust miRNA-based host response, and because miR-143-3p promotes apoptosis and inhibits autophagy, downregulation of miR-143-3p expression during C. burnetii infection likely benefits the pathogen.
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10
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Kohl L, Siddique MNAA, Bodendorfer B, Berger R, Preikschat A, Daniel C, Ölke M, Liebler‐Tenorio E, Schulze‐Luehrmann J, Mauermeir M, Yang K, Hayek I, Szperlinski M, Andrack J, Schleicher U, Bozec A, Krönke G, Murray PJ, Wirtz S, Yamamoto M, Schatz V, Jantsch J, Oefner P, Degrandi D, Pfeffer K, Mertens‐Scholz K, Rauber S, Bogdan C, Dettmer K, Lührmann A, Lang R. Macrophages inhibit Coxiella burnetii by the ACOD1-itaconate pathway for containment of Q fever. EMBO Mol Med 2022; 15:e15931. [PMID: 36479617 PMCID: PMC9906395 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.202215931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with the intracellular bacterium Coxiella (C.) burnetii can cause chronic Q fever with severe complications and limited treatment options. Here, we identify the enzyme cis-aconitate decarboxylase 1 (ACOD1 or IRG1) and its product itaconate as protective host immune pathway in Q fever. Infection of mice with C. burnetii induced expression of several anti-microbial candidate genes, including Acod1. In macrophages, Acod1 was essential for restricting C. burnetii replication, while other antimicrobial pathways were dispensable. Intratracheal or intraperitoneal infection of Acod1-/- mice caused increased C. burnetii burden, weight loss and stronger inflammatory gene expression. Exogenously added itaconate restored pathogen control in Acod1-/- mouse macrophages and blocked replication in human macrophages. In axenic cultures, itaconate directly inhibited growth of C. burnetii. Finally, treatment of infected Acod1-/- mice with itaconate efficiently reduced the tissue pathogen load. Thus, ACOD1-derived itaconate is a key factor in the macrophage-mediated defense against C. burnetii and may be exploited for novel therapeutic approaches in chronic Q fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Kohl
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Md Nur A Alam Siddique
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Barbara Bodendorfer
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Raffaela Berger
- Institute of Functional GenomicsUniversity of RegensburgRegensburgGermany
| | - Annica Preikschat
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Christoph Daniel
- Department of NephropathologyUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Martha Ölke
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Elisabeth Liebler‐Tenorio
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich‐Loeffler‐Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal HealthJenaGermany
| | - Jan Schulze‐Luehrmann
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Michael Mauermeir
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Kai‐Ting Yang
- Department of Medicine 3Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Deutsches Zentrum für Immuntherapie (DZI)Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum ErlangenErlangenGermany
| | - Inaya Hayek
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Manuela Szperlinski
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Jennifer Andrack
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich‐Loeffler‐Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal HealthJenaGermany
| | - Ulrike Schleicher
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Medical Immunology Campus ErlangenFAU Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Aline Bozec
- Department of Medicine 3Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Medical Immunology Campus ErlangenFAU Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Gerhard Krönke
- Department of Medicine 3Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Medical Immunology Campus ErlangenFAU Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | | | - Stefan Wirtz
- Deutsches Zentrum für Immuntherapie (DZI)Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum ErlangenErlangenGermany,Medical Immunology Campus ErlangenFAU Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Department of Medicine 1Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | | | - Valentin Schatz
- Institute of Clinical MicrobiologyUniversity Hospital RegensburgRegensburgGermany
| | - Jonathan Jantsch
- Institute of Clinical MicrobiologyUniversity Hospital RegensburgRegensburgGermany,Present address:
Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and HygieneUniversity Hospital Cologne and Faculty of Medicine, University of CologneCologneGermany
| | - Peter Oefner
- Institute of Functional GenomicsUniversity of RegensburgRegensburgGermany
| | - Daniel Degrandi
- Institute of Medical MicrobiologyHeinrich Heine University DüsseldorfDüsseldorfGermany
| | - Klaus Pfeffer
- Institute of Medical MicrobiologyHeinrich Heine University DüsseldorfDüsseldorfGermany
| | - Katja Mertens‐Scholz
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich‐Loeffler‐Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal HealthJenaGermany
| | - Simon Rauber
- Department of Medicine 3Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Deutsches Zentrum für Immuntherapie (DZI)Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum ErlangenErlangenGermany
| | - Christian Bogdan
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Medical Immunology Campus ErlangenFAU Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Katja Dettmer
- Institute of Functional GenomicsUniversity of RegensburgRegensburgGermany
| | - Anja Lührmann
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Medical Immunology Campus ErlangenFAU Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
| | - Roland Lang
- Mikrobiologisches Institut – Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und HygieneUniversitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany,Medical Immunology Campus ErlangenFAU Erlangen‐NürnbergErlangenGermany
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11
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Vollmuth N, Schlicker L, Guo Y, Hovhannisyan P, Janaki-Raman S, Kurmasheva N, Schmitz W, Schulze A, Stelzner K, Rajeeve K, Rudel T. c-Myc plays a key role in IFN-γ-induced persistence of Chlamydia trachomatis. eLife 2022; 11:76721. [PMID: 36155135 PMCID: PMC9512400 DOI: 10.7554/elife.76721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis (Ctr) can persist over extended times within their host cell and thereby establish chronic infections. One of the major inducers of chlamydial persistence is interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) released by immune cells as a mechanism of immune defence. IFN-γ activates the catabolic depletion of L-tryptophan (Trp) via indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), resulting in persistent Ctr. Here, we show that IFN-γ induces the downregulation of c-Myc, the key regulator of host cell metabolism, in a STAT1-dependent manner. Expression of c-Myc rescued Ctr from IFN-γ-induced persistence in cell lines and human fallopian tube organoids. Trp concentrations control c-Myc levels most likely via the PI3K-GSK3β axis. Unbiased metabolic analysis revealed that Ctr infection reprograms the host cell tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle to support pyrimidine biosynthesis. Addition of TCA cycle intermediates or pyrimidine/purine nucleosides to infected cells rescued Ctr from IFN-γ-induced persistence. Thus, our results challenge the longstanding hypothesis of Trp depletion through IDO as the major mechanism of IFN-γ-induced metabolic immune defence and significantly extends the understanding of the role of IFN-γ as a broad modulator of host cell metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Vollmuth
- Department of Microbiology, Biocenter, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Schlicker
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Yongxia Guo
- Department of Microbiology, Biocenter, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.,College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Pargev Hovhannisyan
- Department of Microbiology, Biocenter, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | | | - Naziia Kurmasheva
- Department of Microbiology, Biocenter, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Werner Schmitz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Almut Schulze
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Kathrin Stelzner
- Department of Microbiology, Biocenter, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Karthika Rajeeve
- Department of Microbiology, Biocenter, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Pathogen Biology, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Thomas Rudel
- Department of Microbiology, Biocenter, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
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12
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Klaessens S, Stroobant V, De Plaen E, Van den Eynde BJ. Systemic tryptophan homeostasis. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:897929. [PMID: 36188218 PMCID: PMC9515494 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.897929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid, which is not only a building block for protein synthesis, but also a precursor for the biosynthesis of co-enzymes and neuromodulators, such as NAD/NADP(H), kynurenic acid, melatonin and serotonin. It also plays a role in immune homeostasis, as local tryptophan catabolism impairs T-lymphocyte mediated immunity. Therefore, tryptophan plasmatic concentration needs to be stable, in spite of large variations in dietary supply. Here, we review the main checkpoints accounting for tryptophan homeostasis, including absorption, transport, metabolism and elimination, and we discuss the physiopathology of disorders associated with their dysfunction. Tryptophan is catabolized along the kynurenine pathway through the action of two enzymes that mediate the first and rate-limiting step of the pathway: indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) and tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO). While IDO1 expression is restricted to peripheral sites of immune modulation, TDO is massively expressed in the liver and accounts for 90% of tryptophan catabolism. Recent data indicated that the stability of the TDO protein is regulated by tryptophan and that this regulation allows a tight control of tryptophanemia. TDO is stabilized when tryptophan is abundant in the plasma, resulting in rapid degradation of dietary tryptophan. In contrast, when tryptophan is scarce, TDO is degraded by the proteasome to avoid excessive tryptophan catabolism. This is triggered by the unmasking of a degron in a non-catalytic tryptophan-binding site, resulting in TDO ubiquitination by E3 ligase SKP1-CUL1-F-box. Deficiency in TDO or in the hepatic aromatic transporter SLC16A10 leads to severe hypertryptophanemia, which can disturb immune and neurological homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Klaessens
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Brussels, Belgium
- de Duve Institute, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Simon Klaessens, ; Benoit J. Van den Eynde,
| | - Vincent Stroobant
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Brussels, Belgium
- de Duve Institute, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Etienne De Plaen
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Brussels, Belgium
- de Duve Institute, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Benoit J. Van den Eynde
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Brussels, Belgium
- de Duve Institute, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
- Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Wavre, Belgium
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Simon Klaessens, ; Benoit J. Van den Eynde,
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13
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Crowther RR, Qualls JE. Metabolic Regulation of Immune Responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Spotlight on L-Arginine and L-Tryptophan Metabolism. Front Immunol 2021; 11:628432. [PMID: 33633745 PMCID: PMC7900187 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.628432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), is a leading cause of death worldwide. Despite decades of research, there is still much to be uncovered regarding the immune response to Mtb infection. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on anti-Mtb immunity, with a spotlight on immune cell amino acid metabolism. Specifically, we discuss L-arginine and L-tryptophan, focusing on their requirements, regulatory roles, and potential use as adjunctive therapy in TB patients. By continuing to uncover the immune cell contribution during Mtb infection and how amino acid utilization regulates their functions, it is anticipated that novel host-directed therapies may be developed and/or refined, helping to eradicate TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca R Crowther
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States.,Immunology Graduate Program, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Joseph E Qualls
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
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14
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Fiore A, Murray PJ. Tryptophan and indole metabolism in immune regulation. Curr Opin Immunol 2021; 70:7-14. [PMID: 33418116 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2020.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
L-tryptophan is an essential amino acid that undergoes complex metabolic routes, resulting in production of many types of signaling molecules that fall into two types: retaining the indole ring such as serotonin, melatonin and indole-pyruvate or breaking the indole ring to form kynurenine. Kynurenines are the precursor of signaling molecules and are the first step in de novo NAD+ synthesis. In mammalian cells, the kynurenine pathway is initiated by the rate-limiting enzymes tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) and interferon responsive indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1) and is the major route for tryptophan catabolism. IDO1 regulates immune cell function through the kynurenine pathway but also by depleting tryptophan in microenvironments, and especially in tumors, which led to the development of IDO1 inhibitors for cancer therapy. However, the connections between tryptophan depletion versus product supply remain an ongoing challenge in cellular biochemistry and metabolism. Here, we highlight current knowledge about the physiological and pathological roles of tryptophan signaling network with a focus on the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter J Murray
- Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany.
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15
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Mechanisms controlling bacterial infection in myeloid cells under hypoxic conditions. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 78:1887-1907. [PMID: 33125509 PMCID: PMC7966188 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03684-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Various factors of the tissue microenvironment such as the oxygen concentration influence the host-pathogen interaction. During the past decade, hypoxia-driven signaling via hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF) has emerged as an important factor that affects both the pathogen and the host. In this chapter, we will review the current knowledge of this complex interplay, with a particular emphasis given to the impact of hypoxia and HIF on the inflammatory and antimicrobial activity of myeloid cells, the bacterial responses to hypoxia and the containment of bacterial infections under oxygen-limited conditions. We will also summarize how low oxygen concentrations influence the metabolism of neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells. Finally, we will discuss the consequences of hypoxia and HIFα activation for the invading pathogen, with a focus on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Coxiella burnetii, Salmonella enterica and Staphylococcus aureus. This includes a description of the mechanisms and microbial factors, which the pathogens use to sense and react to hypoxic conditions.
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16
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Wetzel LA, Hurtado M, MacDowell Kaswan ZA, McCusker RH, Steelman AJ. Deletion of indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (Ido)1 but not Ido2 exacerbates disease symptoms of MOG 35-55-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Brain Behav Immun Health 2020; 7:100116. [PMID: 34589873 PMCID: PMC8474387 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) with pathological features of inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Several lines of evidence suggest that the enzymes indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (Ido)1 and/or Ido2 influences susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Deletion of Ido1 exacerbates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) an animal model of MS. However, no data exist on the role of Ido2 in the pathogenesis of EAE. We investigated whether deletion of Ido2 affected the pathogenesis of EAE. Temporal expression of interferon gamma (Ifng), Ido1 variants, Ido2 variants, as well as genes encoding enzymes of the kynurenine pathway in the spleen and spinal cord of C57BL/6 mice with or without EAE were determined by RT-qPCR. Moreover, EAE was induced in C57BL/6, two Ido1 knockout strains (Ido1KO and Ido1TK) and one Ido2 knockout mouse strain (Ido2-/-) and disease monitored by clinical scores and weight change. Performance on the rotarod was performed on days 0, 5, 10 and 15 post induction. The extent of demyelination in the spinal cord was determined after staining with Oil red O. The development of EAE altered gene expression in both the spleen and spinal cord. Deletion of Ido1 exacerbated the clinical symptoms of EAE. In stark contrast, EAE in Ido2-/- mice did not differ clinically or histologically from control mice. These results confirm a protective role for Ido1, on the pathogenesis of MOG35-55-induced EAE in C57BL/6J mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A. Wetzel
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Myrna Hurtado
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Integrative Immunology and Behavior Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Zoe A. MacDowell Kaswan
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Integrative Immunology and Behavior Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Robert H. McCusker
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Integrative Immunology and Behavior Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Andrew J. Steelman
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Integrative Immunology and Behavior Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
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17
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Collins JM, Siddiqa A, Jones DP, Liu K, Kempker RR, Nizam A, Shah NS, Ismail N, Ouma SG, Tukvadze N, Li S, Day CL, Rengarajan J, Brust JC, Gandhi NR, Ernst JD, Blumberg HM, Ziegler TR. Tryptophan catabolism reflects disease activity in human tuberculosis. JCI Insight 2020; 5:137131. [PMID: 32369456 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.137131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
There is limited understanding of the role of host metabolism in the pathophysiology of human tuberculosis (TB). Using high-resolution metabolomics with an unbiased approach to metabolic pathway analysis, we discovered that the tryptophan pathway is highly regulated throughout the spectrum of TB infection and disease. This regulation is characterized by increased catabolism of tryptophan to kynurenine, which was evident not only in active TB disease but also in latent TB infection (LTBI). Further, we found that tryptophan catabolism is reversed with effective treatment of both active TB disease and LTBI in a manner commensurate with bacterial clearance. Persons with active TB and LTBI also exhibited increased expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-1 (IDO-1), suggesting IDO-1 mediates observed increases in tryptophan catabolism. Together, these data indicate IDO-1-mediated tryptophan catabolism is highly preserved in the human response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis and could be a target for biomarker development as well as host-directed therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Collins
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Amnah Siddiqa
- Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Dean P Jones
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ken Liu
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Russell R Kempker
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Azhar Nizam
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics
| | - N Sarita Shah
- Department of Epidemiology, and.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Nazir Ismail
- Centre for Tuberculosis, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Services, Johannesburg, South Africa.,Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | | - Nestani Tukvadze
- National Center for Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Shuzhao Li
- Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Cheryl L Day
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center and.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jyothi Rengarajan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center and.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - James Cm Brust
- Division of General Internal Medicine and.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Neel R Gandhi
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, and.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Joel D Ernst
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, UCSF School of Medicine, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Henry M Blumberg
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, and.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center and
| | - Thomas R Ziegler
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Lipids and.,Emory Center for Clinical and Molecular Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Section of Endocrinology, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta Georgia, USA
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