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Grillová L, Romeis E, Lieberman NAP, Tantalo LC, Xu LH, Molini B, Trejos AT, Lacey G, Goulding D, Thomson NR, Greninger AL, Giacani L. Bright New Resources for Syphilis Research: Genetically Encoded Fluorescent Tags for Treponema pallidum and Sf1Ep Cells. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.29.596454. [PMID: 38854070 PMCID: PMC11160695 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.29.596454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
The recently discovered methodologies to cultivate and genetically manipulate Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum ( T. pallidum ) have significantly helped syphilis research, allowing the in vitro evaluation of antibiotic efficacy, performance of controlled studies to assess differential treponemal gene expression, and generation of loss-of-function mutants to evaluate the contribution of specific genetic loci to T. pallidum virulence. Building on this progress, we engineered the T. pallidum SS14 strain to express a red-shifted Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) and Sf1Ep cells to express mCherry and blue fluorescent protein (BFP) for enhanced visualization. These new resources improve microscopy- and cell sorting-based applications for T. pallidum , better capturing the physical interaction between the host and pathogen, among other possibilities. Continued efforts to develop and share new tools and resources are required to help our overall knowledge of T. pallidum biology and syphilis pathogenesis reach that of other bacterial pathogens, including spirochetes. Graphical abstract By employing genetic engineering, T. pallidum was modified to express GFP, and Sf1Ep cells to express mCherry on the cytoplasmic membrane and BFP in the nucleus. These new resources for syphilis research will facilitate experimental designs to better define the complex interplay between T. pallidum and the host during infection.
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Deb S, Wild MA, LeClair T, Shah DH. Discovery of novel treponemes associated with pododermatitis in elk ( Cervus canadensis). Appl Environ Microbiol 2024:e0010524. [PMID: 38742897 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00105-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Pododermatitis, also known as treponeme-associated hoof disease (TAHD), presents a significant challenge to elk (Cervus canadensis) populations in the northwestern USA, with Treponema spp. consistently implicated in the lesion development. However, identifying species-specific Treponema strains from these lesions is hindered by its culture recalcitrance and limited genomic information. This study utilized shotgun sequencing, in silico genome reconstruction, and comparative genomics as a culture-independent approach to identify metagenome-assembled Treponema genomes (MATGs) from skin scraping samples collected from captive elk experimentally challenged with TAHD. The genomic analysis revealed 10 new MATGs, with 6 representing novel genomospecies associated with pododermatitis in elk and 4 corresponding to previously identified species-Treponema pedis and Treponema phagedenis. Importantly, genomic signatures of novel genomospecies identified in this study were consistently detected in biopsy samples of free-ranging elk diagnosed with TAHD, indicating a potential etiologic association. Comparative metabolic profiling of the MATGs against other Treponema genomes showed a distinct metabolic profile, suggesting potential host adaptation or geographic uniqueness of these newly identified genomospecies. The discovery of novel Treponema genomospecies enhances our understanding of the pathogenesis of pododermatitis and lays the foundation for the development of improved molecular surveillance tools to monitor and manage the disease in free-ranging elk.IMPORTANCETreponema spp. play an important role in the development of pododermatitis in free-ranging elk; however, the species-specific detection of Treponema from pododermatitis lesions is challenging due to culture recalcitrance and limited genomic information. The study utilized shotgun sequencing and in silico genome reconstruction to identify novel Treponema genomospecies from elk with pododermatitis. The discovery of the novel Treponema species opens new avenues to develop molecular diagnostic and epidemiologic tools for the surveillance of pododermatitis in elk. These findings significantly enhance our understanding of the genomic landscape of the Treponemataceae consortium while offering valuable insights into the etiology and pathogenesis of emerging pododermatitis in elk populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushanta Deb
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Margaret A Wild
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Thomas LeClair
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Devendra H Shah
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, Amarillo, Texas, USA
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3
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Houston S, Gomez A, Geppert A, Goodyear MC, Cameron CE. In-Depth Proteome Coverage of In Vitro-Cultured Treponema pallidum and Quantitative Comparison Analyses with In Vivo-Grown Treponemes. J Proteome Res 2024; 23:1725-1743. [PMID: 38636938 PMCID: PMC11077495 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.3c00891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Previous mass spectrometry (MS)-based global proteomics studies have detected a combined total of 86% of all Treponema pallidum proteins under infection conditions (in vivo-grown T. pallidum). Recently, a method was developed for the long-term culture of T. pallidum under in vitro conditions (in vitro-cultured T. pallidum). Herein, we used our previously reported optimized MS-based proteomics approach to characterize the T. pallidum global protein expression profile under in vitro culture conditions. These analyses provided a proteome coverage of 94%, which extends the combined T. pallidum proteome coverage from the previously reported 86% to a new combined total of 95%. This study provides a more complete understanding of the protein repertoire of T. pallidum. Further, comparison of the in vitro-expressed proteome with the previously determined in vivo-expressed proteome identifies only a few proteomic changes between the two growth conditions, reinforcing the suitability of in vitro-cultured T. pallidum as an alternative to rabbit-based treponemal growth. The MS proteomics data have been deposited in the MassIVE repository with the data set identifier MSV000093603 (ProteomeXchange identifier PXD047625).
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Houston
- Department
of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University
of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Alloysius Gomez
- Department
of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University
of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Andrew Geppert
- Department
of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University
of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Mara C. Goodyear
- Department
of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University
of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Caroline E. Cameron
- Department
of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University
of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
- Department
of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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Xie Q, Tang Y, Shen L, Yang D, Zhang J, Luo Q. Immunophenotypic variations in syphilis: insights from Mendelian randomization analysis. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1380720. [PMID: 38694502 PMCID: PMC11061532 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1380720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Infection with Treponema pallidum instigates complex immune responses. Prior research has suggested that persistent Treponema pallidum infection can manipulate host immune responses and circumvent host defenses. However, the precise role of immune cells in Treponema pallidum infection across different stages remains a contentious issue. Methods Utilizing summary data from genome-wide association studies, we employed a two-sample Mendelian randomization method to investigate the association between 731 immunophenotypes and syphilis. Syphilis was categorized into early and late stages in this study to establish a more robust correlation and minimize bias in database sources. Results Our findings revealed that 33, 36, and 27 immunophenotypes of peripheral blood were associated with syphilis (regardless of disease stage), early syphilis and late syphilis, respectively. Subsequent analysis demonstrated significant variations between early and late syphilis in terms of immunophenotypes. Specifically, early syphilis showcased activated, secreting, and resting regulatory T cells, whereas late syphilis was characterized by resting Treg cells. More B cells subtypes emerged in late syphilis. Monocytes in early syphilis exhibited an intermediate and non-classical phenotype, transitioning to classical in late syphilis. Early syphilis featured naive T cells, effector memory T cells, and terminally differentiated T cells, while late syphilis predominantly presented terminally differentiated T cells. Immature myeloid-derived suppressor cells were evident in early syphilis, whereas the dendritic cell immunophenotype was exclusive to late syphilis. Conclusion Multiple immunophenotypes demonstrated associations with syphilis, showcasing substantial disparities between the early and late stages of the disease. These findings hold promise for informing immunologically oriented treatment strategies, paving the way for more effective and efficient syphilis interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Qingqiong Luo
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Skin Disease Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
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Lieberman NAP, Avendaño CC, Bakhash SAKM, Nunley E, Xie H, Giacani L, Berzkalns A, Soge OO, Reid TB, Golden MR, Greninger AL. Genomic Epidemiology of Treponema pallidum and Circulation of Strains With Diminished tprK Antigen Variation Capability in Seattle, 2021-2022. J Infect Dis 2024; 229:866-875. [PMID: 37769216 PMCID: PMC10938213 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The incidence of syphilis continues to increase in the United States, yet little is known about Treponema pallidum genomic epidemiology within American metropolitan areas. METHODS We performed whole-genome sequencing and tprK deep sequencing of 28 T. pallidum-containing specimens, collected mostly from remnant Aptima swab specimens from 24 individuals from Seattle Sexual Health Clinic during 2021-2022. RESULTS All 12 individuals infected with Nichols-lineage strains were men who have sex with men, while a specific SS14 cluster (mean, 0.33 single-nucleotide variant) included 1 man who has sex with women and 5 women. All T. pallidum strains sequenced were azithromycin resistant via 23S ribosomal RNA A2058G mutation. Identical T. pallidum genomic sequences were found in pharyngeal and rectal swab specimens taken concurrently from the same individuals. The tprK sequences were less variable between patient-matched specimens and between epidemiologically linked clusters. We detected a 528-base pair deletion in the tprK donor site locus, eliminating 9 donor sites, in T. pallidum genomes of 3 individuals with secondary syphilis, associated with diminution of TprK diversity. CONCLUSIONS We developed an end-to-end workflow for public health genomic surveillance of T. pallidum from remnant Aptima swab specimens. tprK sequencing may assist in linking cases beyond routine T. pallidum genome sequencing. T. pallidum strains with deletions in tprK donor sites currently circulate and are associated with diminished TprK antigenic diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A P Lieberman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Carlos C Avendaño
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Shah A K Mohamed Bakhash
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Ethan Nunley
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Hong Xie
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Lorenzo Giacani
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Anna Berzkalns
- Public Health—Seattle & King County HIV/STD Program, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Olusegun O Soge
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Center for AIDS and STD, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Tara B Reid
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Matthew R Golden
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Public Health—Seattle & King County HIV/STD Program, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Center for AIDS and STD, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Alexander L Greninger
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Reid TB, Godornes C, Campbell VL, Laing KJ, Tantalo LC, Gomez A, Pholsena TN, Lieberman NAP, Krause TM, Cegielski VI, Culver LA, Nguyen N, Tong DQ, Hawley KL, Greninger AL, Giacani L, Cameron CE, Dombrowski JC, Wald A, Koelle DM. Treponema pallidum periplasmic and membrane proteins are recognized by circulating and skin CD4+ T cells. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.27.581790. [PMID: 38464313 PMCID: PMC10925203 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.27.581790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Background Histologic and serologic studies suggest the induction of local and systemic Treponema pallidum ( Tp )-specific CD4+ T cell responses to Tp infection. We hypothesized that Tp -specific CD4+ T cells are detectable in blood and in the skin rash of secondary syphilis and persist in both compartments after treatment. Methods PBMC collected from 67 participants were screened by IFNγ ELISPOT response to Tp sonicate. Tp -reactive T cell lines from blood and skin were probed for responses to 88 recombinant Tp antigens. Peptide epitopes and HLA class II restriction were defined for selected antigens. Results We detected CD4+ T cell responses to Tp sonicate ex vivo. Using Tp -reactive T cell lines we observed recognition of 14 discrete proteins, 13 of which localize to bacterial membranes or the periplasmic space. After therapy, Tp -specific T cells persisted for at least 6 months in skin and 10 years in blood. Conclusions Tp infection elicits an antigen-specific CD4+ T cell response in blood and skin. Tp -specific CD4+ T cells persist as memory in both compartments long after curative therapy. The Tp antigenic targets we identified may be high priority vaccine candidates.
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Medappa M, Pospíšilová P, Madruga MPM, John LN, Beiras CG, Grillová L, Oppelt J, Banerjee A, Vall-Mayans M, Mitjà O, Šmajs D. Low genetic diversity of Treponema pallidum ssp. pertenue (TPE) isolated from patients' ulcers in Namatanai District of Papua New Guinea: Local human population is infected by three TPE genotypes. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0011831. [PMID: 38166151 PMCID: PMC10786373 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Yaws is an endemic disease caused by Treponema pallidum subsp. pertenue (TPE) that primarily affects children in rural regions of the tropics. The endemic character of yaws infections and the expected exclusive reservoir of TPE in humans opened a new opportunity to start a yaws eradication campaign. We have developed a multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) scheme for TPE isolates combining the previously published (TP0548, TP0488) and new (TP0858) chromosomal loci, and we compared this typing scheme to the two previously published MLST schemes. We applied this scheme to TPE-containing clinical isolates obtained during a mass drug administration study performed in the Namatanai District of Papua New Guinea between June 2018 and December 2019. Of 1081 samples collected, 302 (28.5%) tested positive for TPE DNA, from which 255 (84.4%) were fully typed. The TPE PCR-positivity in swab samples was higher in younger patients, patients with single ulcers, first ulcer episodes, and with ulcer duration less than six months. Non-treponemal serological test positivity correlated better with PCR positivity compared to treponema-specific serological tests. The MLST revealed a low level of genetic diversity among infecting TPE isolates, represented by just three distinct genotypes (JE11, SE22, and TE13). Two previously used typing schemes revealed similar typing resolutions. Two new alleles (one in TP0858 and one in TP0136) were shown to arise by intragenomic recombination/deletion events. Compared to samples genotyped as JE11, the minor genotypes (TE13 and SE22) were more frequently detected in samples from patients with two or more ulcers and patients with higher values of specific TP serological tests. Moreover, the A2058G mutation in the 23S rRNA genes of three JE11 isolates was found, resulting in azithromycin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Medappa
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Pospíšilová
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | - Lucy N. John
- National Department of Health, Aopi Centre, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Linda Grillová
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Oppelt
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Arka Banerjee
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Marti Vall-Mayans
- Skin NTDs and STI section, Fight Infectious Diseases Foundation, University Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain
| | - Oriol Mitjà
- Skin NTDs and STI section, Fight Infectious Diseases Foundation, University Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain
- Lihir Medical Centre, Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
| | - David Šmajs
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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Li W, Yuan W, Huang S, Zou L, Zheng K, Xie D. Research progress on the mechanism of Treponema pallidum breaking through placental barrier. Microb Pathog 2023; 185:106392. [PMID: 37852552 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2023.106392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Congenital syphilis, a significant cause of fetal mortality worldwide, is a congenital infectious disease instigated by the vertical transmission of Treponema pallidum during pregnancy. Clinical manifestations include preterm delivery, stillbirth, neonatal skin lesions, skeletal abnormalities, and central nervous system aberrations. The ongoing increase in the incidence of congenital syphilis, coupled with complexities in diagnosis, necessitates a detailed understanding of its pathogenesis for the development of improved diagnostic approaches, and to interrupt the route of vertical transmission. Drawing from the broader body of research associated with vertical transmission pathogens, we aim to clarify the potential mechanisms by which Treponema pallidum breaches the placental barrier to infect the fetus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Li
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second People's Hospital of Foshan, China
| | - Wei Yuan
- The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, China
| | - Shaobin Huang
- Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang Medical College, Institution of Pathogenic Biology, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Lin Zou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second People's Hospital of Foshan, China
| | - Kang Zheng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Central Hospital, Hengyang, China.
| | - Dongde Xie
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second People's Hospital of Foshan, China.
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Hayes KA, Dressler JM, Norris SJ, Edmondson DG, Jutras BL. A large screen identifies beta-lactam antibiotics which can be repurposed to target the syphilis agent. NPJ ANTIMICROBIALS AND RESISTANCE 2023; 1:4. [PMID: 38686211 PMCID: PMC11057208 DOI: 10.1038/s44259-023-00006-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Syphilis, caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum (hereafter called T. pallidum), is re-emerging as a worldwide sexually transmitted infection. A single intramuscular dose of benzathine penicillin G is the preferred syphilis treatment option. Both supply shortage concerns and the potential for acquired antibiotic resistance further the need to broaden the repertoire of syphilis therapeutics. We reasoned that other β-lactams may be equally or more effective at targeting the disease-causing agent, Treponema pallidum, but have yet to be discovered due to a previous lack of a continuous in vitro culture system. Recent technical advances with respect to in vitro T. pallidum propagation allowed us to conduct a high-throughput screen of almost 100 β-lactams. Using several molecular and cellular approaches that we developed or adapted, we identified and confirmed the efficacy of several β-lactams that were similar to or outperformed the current standard, benzathine penicillin G. These options are either currently used to treat bacterial infections or are synthetic derivatives of naturally occurring compounds. Our studies not only identified additional potential therapeutics in the resolution of syphilis, but provide techniques to study the complex biology of T. pallidum-a spirochete that has plagued human health for centuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn A. Hayes
- Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
- Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Jules M. Dressler
- Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Steven J. Norris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX USA
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX USA
| | - Diane G. Edmondson
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX USA
| | - Brandon L. Jutras
- Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
- Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
- Center for Emerging, Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
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Yang J, Wang YYL, Kazmi SSUH, Mo J, Fan H, Wang Y, Liu W, Wang Z. Evaluation of in vitro toxicity information for zebrafish as a promising alternative for chemical hazard and risk assessment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 872:162262. [PMID: 36801337 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In vitro assays are widely proposed as a test alternative to traditional in vivo standard acute and chronic toxicity tests. However, whether toxicity information derived from in vitro assays instead of in vivo tests could provide sufficient protection (e.g., 95 % of protection) for chemical risks remain evaluated. To investigate the feasibility of zebrafish (Danio rerio) cell-based in vitro test method as a test alternative, we comprehensively compared sensitivity differences among endpoints, among test methods (in vitro, FET and in vivo), and between zebrafish and rat (Rattus norvegicus), respectively using chemical toxicity distribution (CTD) approach. For each test method involved, sublethal endpoints were more sensitive than lethal endpoints for both zebrafish and rat, respectively. Biochemistry (zebrafish in vitro), development (zebrafish in vivo and FET), physiology (rat in vitro) and development (rat in vivo) were the most sensitive endpoints for each test method. Nonetheless, zebrafish FET test was the least sensitive one compared to its in vivo and in vitro tests for either lethal or sublethal responses. Comparatively, rat in vitro tests considering cell viability and physiology endpoints were more sensitive than rat in vivo test. Zebrafish was found to be more sensitive than rat regardless of in vivo or in vitro tests for each pairwise endpoint of concern. Those findings indicate that zebrafish in vitro test is a feasible test alternative to zebrafish in vivo and FET test and traditional mammalian test. It is suggesting that zebrafish in vitro test can be optimized by choosing more sensitive endpoints, such as biochemistry to provide sufficient protection for zebrafish in vivo test and to establish applications of zebrafish in vitro test in future risk assessment. Our findings are vital for evaluating and further application of in vitro toxicity toxicity information as an alternative for chemical hazard and risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Yolina Yu Lin Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Syed Shabi Ul Hassan Kazmi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Jiezhang Mo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Hailin Fan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Yuwen Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Wenhua Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China.
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11
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Cai CX, Li SL, Lin HL, Wei ZH, Xie L, Lin LR, Niu JJ, Yang TC. Treponema pallidum protein Tp0136 promoting MMPs/TIMPs imbalance via PI3K, MAPK and NF-κB signalling pathways in HDVSMCs. Heliyon 2022; 8:e12065. [PMID: 36561703 PMCID: PMC9763734 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The invasive capability of Treponema. pallidum is central to its infection process. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are specifically inhibited by the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), play a pivotal role in promoting pathogenic invasion by destroying tissue barriers within the body. This study aimed to explore the effect of T. pallidum protein Tp0136 on the balance of MMPs/TIMPs in human dermal vascular smooth muscle cells (HDVSMCs) and the related underlying mechanisms. A number of in vitro studies were conducted to access the impact of recombinant Tp0136 protein on the balance of MMPs/TIMPs in HDVSMCs. The involvement of the PI3K, MAPK, and NF-κB signaling pathways in this process was also investigated. Tp0136 induced the mRNA and protein expressions of MMP1 in HDVSMCs in a concentration-dependent way. In addition, MMP1/TIMP1 and MMP1/TIMP2 ratios were also increased. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that treatment of HDVSMCs with Tp0136 activated the PI3K, MAPK, and NF-κB signaling pathways. Inhibition of PI3K, JNK, P38, and NF-κB, suppressed MMP1 expression and reduced the induction of MMP1/TIMP1 and MMP1/TIMP2 ratios by Tp0136. These findings demonstrate that Tp0136 enhanced the expression of MMP1 involving the PI3K, MAPK, and NF-κB signaling pathways in HDVSMCs, and thus generated the unbalance of MMPs/TIMP, which could contribute to the early spread of T. pallidum and pathogenesis of syphilis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Xiang Cai
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Xiamen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Xiamen, China
| | - Shu-Lian Li
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Xiamen Huli District Maternity and Child Care Hospital, Xiamen, China
| | - Hui-Ling Lin
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Xiamen Huli District Maternity and Child Care Hospital, Xiamen, China
| | - Zi-Han Wei
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Lin Xie
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Li-Rong Lin
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Corresponding author.
| | - Jian-Jun Niu
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Corresponding author.
| | - Tian-Ci Yang
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China,Corresponding author.
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12
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Tang Y, Zhou Y, He B, Cao T, Zhou X, Ning L, Chen E, Li Y, Xie X, Peng B, Hu Y, Liu S. Investigation of the immune escape mechanism of Treponema pallidum. Infection 2022; 51:305-321. [PMID: 36260281 DOI: 10.1007/s15010-022-01939-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Syphilis is a chronic sexually transmitted disease caused by Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum (T. pallidum), which is a public health problem that seriously affects human health worldwide. T. pallidum is characterized by early transmission and immune escape and is therefore termed an "invisible pathogen". METHODS This review systematically summarizes the host's innate and adaptive immune responses to T. pallidum infection as well as the escape mechanisms of T. pallidum. PURPOSE To lay the foundation for assessing the pathogenic mechanism and the systematic prevention and treatment of syphilis. CONCLUSION The immune escape mechanism of T. pallidum plays an important role in its survival. Exploring the occurrence and development of these mechanisms has laid the foundation for the development of syphilis vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Tang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Yingjie Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Bisha He
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Ting Cao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Xiangping Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Lichang Ning
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - En Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Yumeng Li
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaoping Xie
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Binfeng Peng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Yibao Hu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China
| | - Shuangquan Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hengyang Medical School, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, No. 69, Chuanshan Road, Hengyang City, 421000, Hunan, China.
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13
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Lieberman NAP, Armstrong TD, Chung B, Pfalmer D, Hennelly CM, Haynes A, Romeis E, Wang QQ, Zhang RL, Kou CX, Ciccarese G, Conte ID, Cusini M, Drago F, Nakayama SI, Lee K, Ohnishi M, Konda KA, Vargas SK, Eguiluz M, Caceres CF, Klausner JD, Mitja O, Rompalo A, Mulcahy F, Hook EW, Hoffman IF, Matoga MM, Zheng H, Yang B, Lopez-Medina E, Ramirez LG, Radolf JD, Hawley KL, Salazar JC, Lukehart SA, Seña AC, Parr JB, Giacani L, Greninger AL. High-throughput nanopore sequencing of Treponema pallidum tandem repeat genes arp and tp0470 reveals clade-specific patterns and recapitulates global whole genome phylogeny. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1007056. [PMID: 36204625 PMCID: PMC9531955 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1007056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequencing of most Treponema pallidum genomes excludes repeat regions in tp0470 and the tp0433 gene, encoding the acidic repeat protein (arp). As a first step to understanding the evolution and function of these genes and the proteins they encode, we developed a protocol to nanopore sequence tp0470 and arp genes from 212 clinical samples collected from ten countries on six continents. Both tp0470 and arp repeat structures recapitulate the whole genome phylogeny, with subclade-specific patterns emerging. The number of tp0470 repeats is on average appears to be higher in Nichols-like clade strains than in SS14-like clade strains. Consistent with previous studies, we found that 14-repeat arp sequences predominate across both major clades, but the combination and order of repeat type varies among subclades, with many arp sequence variants limited to a single subclade. Although strains that were closely related by whole genome sequencing frequently had the same arp repeat length, this was not always the case. Structural modeling of TP0470 suggested that the eight residue repeats form an extended α-helix, predicted to be periplasmic. Modeling of the ARP revealed a C-terminal sporulation-related repeat (SPOR) domain, predicted to bind denuded peptidoglycan, with repeat regions possibly incorporated into a highly charged β-sheet. Outside of the repeats, all TP0470 and ARP amino acid sequences were identical. Together, our data, along with functional considerations, suggests that both TP0470 and ARP proteins may be involved in T. pallidum cell envelope remodeling and homeostasis, with their highly plastic repeat regions playing as-yet-undetermined roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A. P. Lieberman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Thaddeus D. Armstrong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Benjamin Chung
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Daniel Pfalmer
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Christopher M. Hennelly
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Austin Haynes
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Emily Romeis
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Qian-Qiu Wang
- Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- National Center for STD Control, China Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanjing, China
| | - Rui-Li Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Cai-Xia Kou
- Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- National Center for STD Control, China Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanjing, China
| | - Giulia Ciccarese
- Section of Dermatology, Department of Health Sciences, San Martino University Hospital, Genoa, Italy
| | - Ivano Dal Conte
- Sexual Health Center, Department of Prevention, ASL Città di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Marco Cusini
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Drago
- Section of Dermatology, Department of Health Sciences, San Martino University Hospital, Genoa, Italy
| | - Shu-ichi Nakayama
- Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kenichi Lee
- Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Ohnishi
- Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kelika A. Konda
- Unit of Health, Sexuality and Human Development, Laboratory of Sexual Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano-Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Silver K. Vargas
- Unit of Health, Sexuality and Human Development, Laboratory of Sexual Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano-Heredia, Lima, Peru
- School of Public Health and Administration “Carlos Vidal Layseca”, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Maria Eguiluz
- Unit of Health, Sexuality and Human Development, Laboratory of Sexual Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano-Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Carlos F. Caceres
- Unit of Health, Sexuality and Human Development, Laboratory of Sexual Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano-Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Jeffrey D. Klausner
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Oriol Mitja
- Fight Aids and Infectious Diseases Foundation, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
- Lihir Medical Centre, International SOS, Londolovit, Papua New Guinea
| | - Anne Rompalo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Fiona Mulcahy
- Department of Genito Urinary Medicine and Infectious Diseases, St. James’s Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Edward W. Hook
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Irving F. Hoffman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- UNC Project-Malawi, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Mitch M. Matoga
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- UNC Project-Malawi, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Heping Zheng
- Dermatology Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute for Global Health and Sexually Transmitted Infections, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bin Yang
- Dermatology Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute for Global Health and Sexually Transmitted Infections, Guangzhou, China
| | - Eduardo Lopez-Medina
- Centro Internacional de Entrenamiento e Investigaciones Medicas (CIDEIM), Cali, Colombia
- Centro de Estudios en Infectología Pediátrica (CEIP), Cali, Colombia
| | - Lady G. Ramirez
- Centro Internacional de Entrenamiento e Investigaciones Medicas (CIDEIM), Cali, Colombia
- Universidad ICESI, Cali, Colombia
| | - Justin D. Radolf
- Department of Medicine, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
| | - Kelly L. Hawley
- Department of Medicine, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Connecticut Children’s Medical Center, Hartford, CT, United States
| | - Juan C. Salazar
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Connecticut Children’s Medical Center, Hartford, CT, United States
| | - Sheila A. Lukehart
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Arlene C. Seña
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Jonathan B. Parr
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Lorenzo Giacani
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Alexander L. Greninger
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States
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14
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Kojima N, Konda KA, Klausner JD. Notes on syphilis vaccine development. Front Immunol 2022; 13:952284. [PMID: 35967432 PMCID: PMC9365935 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.952284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The quest for a syphilis vaccine to provide protection from infection or disease began not long after the isolation of the first Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum (T. pallidum) strain in 1912. Yet, a practical and effective vaccine formulation continues to elude scientists. Over the last few years, however, efforts toward developing a syphilis vaccine have increased thanks to an improved understanding of the repertoire of T. pallidum outer membrane proteins (OMPs), which are the most likely syphilis vaccine candidates. More has been also learned about the molecular mechanisms behind pathogen persistence and immune evasion. Published vaccine formulations based on a subset of the pathogen's OMPs have conferred only partial protection upon challenge of immunized laboratory animals, primarily rabbits. Nonetheless, those experiments have improved our approach to the choice of immunization regimens, adjuvants, and vaccine target selection, although significant knowledge gaps remain. Herein, we provide a brief overview on current technologies and approaches employed in syphilis vaccinology, and possible future directions to develop a vaccine that could be pivotal to future syphilis control and elimination initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Kojima
- Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Kelika A. Konda
- Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Centro de Investigación Interdisciplinaria en Sexualidad Sida y Sociedad, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Jeffrey D. Klausner
- Departments of Medicine and Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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