High-resolution large-scale mosaic imaging using multiphoton microscopy to characterize transgenic mouse models of human neurological disorders

Intravital imaging to study cancer progression and metastasis

Navigation through the bulk tumour, entry into the blood vasculature, survival in the circulation, exit at distant sites and resumption of proliferation are all steps necessary for tumour cells to successfully metastasize. The ability of tumour cells to complete these steps is highly dependent on the timing and sequence of the interactions that these cells have with the tumour microenvironment (TME), including stromal cells, the extracellular matrix and soluble factors. The TME thus plays a major role in determining the overall metastatic phenotype of tumours. The complexity and cause-and-effect dynamics of the TME cannot currently be recapitulated in vitro or inferred from studies of fixed tissue, and are best studied in vivo, in real time and at single-cell resolution. Intravital imaging (IVI) offers these capabilities, and recent years have been a time of immense growth and innovation in the field. Here we review some of the recent advances in IVI of mammalian models of cancer and describe how IVI is being used to understand cancer progression and metastasis, and to develop novel treatments and therapies. We describe new techniques that allow access to a range of tissue and cancer types, novel fluorescent reporters and biosensors that allow fate mapping and the probing of functional and phenotypic states, and the clinical applications that have arisen from applying these techniques, reporters and biosensors to study cancer. We finish by presenting some of the challenges that remain in the field, how to address them and future perspectives.

Time-lapsed, large-volume, high-resolution intravital imaging for tissue-wide analysis of single cell dynamics

Pathologists rely on microscopy to diagnose disease states in tissues and organs. They utilize both high-resolution, high-magnification images to interpret the staining and morphology of individual cells, as well as low-magnification overviews to give context and location to these cells. Intravital imaging is a powerful technique for studying cells and tissues in their native, live environment and can yield sub-cellular resolution images similar to those used by pathologists. However, technical limitations prevent the straightforward acquisition of low-magnification images during intravital imaging, and they are hence not typically captured. The serial acquisition, mosaicking, and stitching together of many high-resolution, high-magnification fields of view is a technique that overcomes these limitations in fixed and ex vivo tissues. The technique however, has not to date been widely applied to intravital imaging as movements caused by the living animal induce image distortions that are difficult to compensate for computationally. To address this, we have developed techniques for the stabilization of numerous tissues, including extremely compliant tissues, that have traditionally been extremely difficult to image. We present a novel combination of these stabilization techniques with mosaicked and stitched intravital imaging, resulting in a process we call Large-Volume High-Resolution Intravital Imaging (LVHR-IVI). The techniques we present are validated and make large volume intravital imaging accessible to any lab with a multiphoton microscope.

High-speed microscopy of continuously moving cell culture vessels

We report a method of high-speed phase contrast and bright field microscopy which permits large cell culture vessels to be scanned at much higher speed (up to 30 times faster) than when conventional methods are used without compromising image quality. The object under investigation moves continuously and is captured using a flash illumination which creates an exposure time short enough to prevent motion blur. During the scan the object always stays in focus due to a novel hardware-autofocus system.

Rapid imaging of surgical breast excisions using direct temporal sampling two photon fluorescent lifetime imaging

Two photon fluorescent lifetime imaging is a modality that enables depth-sectioned, molecularly-specific imaging of cells and tissue using intrinsic contrast. However, clinical applications have not been well explored due to low imaging speed and limited field of view, which make evaluating large pathology samples extremely challenging. To address these limitations, we have developed direct temporal sampling two photon fluorescent lifetime imaging (DTS-FLIM), a method which enables a several order of magnitude increase in imaging speed by capturing an entire lifetime decay in a single fluorescent excitation. We use this greatly increased speed to perform a preliminary study using gigapixel-scale imaging of human breast pathology surgical specimens.

Dedifferentiation of neurons and astrocytes by oncogenes can induce gliomas in mice

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive malignant primary brain tumor in humans. Here we show that gliomas can originate from differentiated cells in the central nervous system (CNS), including cortical neurons. Transduction by oncogenic lentiviral vectors of neural stem cells (NSCs), astrocytes, or even mature neurons in the brains of mice can give rise to malignant gliomas. All the tumors, irrespective of the site of lentiviral vector injection (the initiating population), shared common features of high expression of stem or progenitor markers and low expression of differentiation markers. Microarray analysis revealed that tumors of astrocytic and neuronal origin match the mesenchymal GBM subtype. We propose that most differentiated cells in the CNS upon defined genetic alterations undergo dedifferentiation to generate a NSC or progenitor state to initiate and maintain the tumor progression, as well as to give rise to the heterogeneous populations observed in malignant gliomas.

Robust, globally consistent and fully automatic multi-image registration and montage synthesis for 3-D multi-channel images

The need to map regions of brain tissue that are much wider than the field of view of the microscope arises frequently. One common approach is to collect a series of overlapping partial views, and align them to synthesize a montage covering the entire region of interest. We present a method that advances this approach in multiple ways. Our method (1) produces a globally consistent joint registration of an unorganized collection of three-dimensional (3-D) multi-channel images with or without stage micrometer data; (2) produces accurate registrations withstanding changes in scale, rotation, translation and shear by using a 3-D affine transformation model; (3) achieves complete automation, and does not require any parameter settings; (4) handles low and variable overlaps (5-15%) between adjacent images, minimizing the number of images required to cover a tissue region; (5) has the self-diagnostic ability to recognize registration failures instead of delivering incorrect results; (6) can handle a broad range of biological images by exploiting generic alignment cues from multiple fluorescence channels without requiring segmentation and (7) is computationally efficient enough to run on desktop computers regardless of the number of images. The algorithm was tested with several tissue samples of at least 50 image tiles, involving over 5000 image pairs. It correctly registered all image pairs with an overlap greater than 7%, correctly recognized all failures, and successfully joint-registered all images for all tissue samples studied. This algorithm is disseminated freely to the community as included with the Fluorescence Association Rules for Multi-Dimensional Insight toolkit for microscopy (http://www.farsight-toolkit.org).

Inducible nitric oxide synthase-mediated alteration of mitochondrial OPA1 expression in ocular hypertensive rats

PURPOSE

To investigate how OPA1 expression and distribution are altered by increased nitric oxide (NO) and whether aminoguanidine, a relative selective NO synthase (NOS)-2 inhibitor, can restore OPA1 expression and subsequently increase retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival in ocular hypertensive rats.

METHODS

Elevated intraocular pressure was induced unilaterally by translimbal laser photocoagulation of the trabecular meshwork in Sprague-Dawley rats. Aminoguanidine (100 mg/kg) was administered by intraperitoneal injection for 3 consecutive days in rats after laser treatment. Preservation of fluorochrome-labeled RGCs was assessed 2 weeks later. GFAP, NOS-2, or OPA1 protein expression and distribution were assessed by Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. OPA1 mRNA was measured by qPCR.

RESULTS

OPA1 mRNA and protein expression were significantly increased in the vehicle-treated hypertensive rat retina. Aminoguanidine treatment significantly reduced expression of the 90- and 65-kDa OPA1 isoforms but did not significantly change the 80-kDa OPA1 isoform in hypertensive retina. In addition, the increases in NOS-2 and GFAP protein expression were blocked by aminoguanidine treatment in the hypertensive retina. NOS-2 immunoreactivity was induced in cells of the ganglion cell layer in the vehicle-treated hypertensive retina. Aminoguanidine treatment significantly increased RGC survival at 2 weeks after IOP elevation.

CONCLUSIONS

Although NOS-2/NO induction may contribute to hypertensive retinal cell death, an increase in mitochondrial OPA1 may provide an important cellular defense mechanism against pressure-mediated retinal damage. These findings suggest that mitochondrial preservation after inhibition of NOS-2 may be useful for protecting RGCs against glaucomatous damage.

Three-dimensional reconstruction of serial mouse brain sections: solution for flattening high-resolution large-scale mosaics

Recent advances in high-throughput technology facilitate massive data collection and sharing, enabling neuroscientists to explore the brain across a large range of spatial scales. One such form of high-throughput data collection is the construction of large-scale mosaic volumes using light microscopy (Chow et al., 2006; Price et al., 2006). With this technology, researchers can collect and analyze high-resolution digitized volumes of whole brain sections down to 0.2 μm. However, until recently, scientists lacked the tools to easily handle these large high-resolution datasets. Furthermore, artifacts resulting from specimen preparation limited volume reconstruction using this technique to only a single tissue section. In this paper, we carefully describe the steps we used to digitally reconstruct a series of consecutive mouse brain sections labeled with three stains, a stain for blood vessels (DiI), a nuclear stain (TO-PRO-3), and a myelin stain (FluoroMyelin). These stains label important neuroanatomical landmarks that are used for stacking the serial sections during reconstruction. In addition, we show that the use of two software applications, ir-Tweak and Mogrifier, in conjunction with a volume flattening procedure enable scientists to adeptly work with digitized volumes despite tears and thickness variations within tissue sections. These applications make processing large-scale brain mosaics more efficient. When used in combination with new database resources, these brain maps should allow researchers to extend the lifetime of their specimens indefinitely by preserving them in digital form, making them available for future analyses as our knowledge in the field of neuroscience continues to expand.

Alterations in mGluR5 expression and signaling in Lewy body disease and in transgenic models of alpha-synucleinopathy--implications for excitotoxicity

Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Parkinson's Disease (PD) are neurodegenerative disorders of the aging population characterized by the abnormal accumulation of alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn). Previous studies have suggested that excitotoxicity may contribute to neurodegeneration in these disorders, however the underlying mechanisms and their relationship to alpha-syn remain unclear. For this study we proposed that accumulation of alpha-syn might result in alterations in metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR), particularly mGluR5 which has been linked to deficits in murine models of PD. In this context, levels of mGluR5 were analyzed in the brains of PD and DLB human cases and alpha-syn transgenic (tg) mice and compared to age-matched, unimpaired controls, we report a 40% increase in the levels of mGluR5 and beta-arrestin immunoreactivity in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and putamen in DLB cases and in the putamen in PD cases. In the hippocampus, mGluR5 was more abundant in the CA3 region and co-localized with alpha-syn aggregates. Similarly, in the hippocampus and basal ganglia of alpha-syn tg mice, levels of mGluR5 were increased and mGluR5 and alpha-syn were co-localized and co-immunoprecipitated, suggesting that alpha-syn interferes with mGluR5 trafficking. The increased levels of mGluR5 were accompanied by a concomitant increase in the activation of downstream signaling components including ERK, Elk-1 and CREB. Consistent with the increased accumulation of alpha-syn and alterations in mGluR5 in cognitive- and motor-associated brain regions, these mice displayed impaired performance in the water maze and pole test, these behavioral alterations were reversed with the mGluR5 antagonist, MPEP. Taken together the results from study suggest that mGluR5 may directly interact with alpha-syn resulting in its over activation and that this over activation may contribute to excitotoxic cell death in select neuronal regions. These results highlight the therapeutic importance of mGluR5 antagonists in alpha-synucleinopathies.

Ultrastructural characterization of the optic pathway in a mouse model of neurofibromatosis-1 optic glioma

The purpose of this study was to investigate the progression of changes in retinal ganglion cells and optic nerve glia in neurofibromatosis-1 (NF1) genetically-engineered mice with optic glioma. Optic glioma tumors were generated in Nf1+/- mice lacking Nf1 expression in GFAP+ cells (astrocytes). Standard immunohistochemistry methods were employed to identify astrocytes (GFAP, S100beta), proliferating progenitor cells (sox2, nestin), microglia (Iba1), endothelial cells (CD31) and retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons (Neurofilament 68k) in Nf1+/-, Nf1(GFAP)CKO (wild-type mice with Nf1 loss in glial cells), and Nf1+/-(GFAP)CKO (Nf1+/- mice with Nf1 loss in glial cells) mice. Ultrastructural changes in the optic chiasm and nerve were assessed by electron microscopy (EM). RGC were counted in whole retina preparations using high-resolution, mosaic confocal microscopy following their delineation by retrograde FluoroGold labeling. We found that only Nf1+/-(GFAP)CKO mice exhibited gross pre-chiasmatic optic nerve and chiasm enlargements containing aggregated GFAP+/nestin+ and S100beta+/sox2+ cells (neoplastic glia) as well as increased numbers of blood vessels and microglia. Optic gliomas in Nf1+/-(GFAP)CKO mice contained axon fiber irregularities and multilamellar bodies of degenerated myelin. EM and EM tomographic analyses showed increased glial disorganization, disoriented axonal projections, profiles of degenerating myelin and structural alterations at nodes of Ranvier. Lastly, we found reduced RGC numbers in Nf1+/-(GFAP)CKO mice, supporting a model in which the combination of optic nerve Nf1 heterozygosity and glial cell Nf1 loss results in disrupted axonal-glial relationships, subsequently culminating in the degeneration of optic nerve axons and loss of their parent RGC neurons.

High resolution three-dimensional reconstruction of the collagenous matrix of the human optic nerve head

Glaucoma is the second most common cause of blindness worldwide, leading to irreversible loss of vision. Prior studies indicate that ocular pressure-induced displacement of the lamina cribrosa (LC) may be responsible for retinal ganglion cell axon damage inside the neural canal. We present a novel approach to imaging the entire lamina cribrosa and the scleral canal at high lateral and axial resolution by using a combination of array tomography and nonlinear optical imaging of serial ultrathin orthogonal sections to detect second harmonic generated (SHG) signals from collagen. The resulting images can be analyzed individually or combined to form a three-dimensional reconstruction of the lamina. Due to the specificity of SHG generated from collagen the density and distribution of collagen inside the scleral canal can be objectively quantified with a high degree of accuracy. The reconstruction shows a non-uniform distribution of collagen along both the longitudinal and orthogonal axes. Mapping the collagen density by geographic region reveals significant differences in collagen content that result in "thin spots" with low collagen density as well as areas of very high collagen content. This suggests a non-uniform mechanical stiffness across the lamina that may account for increased axon damage observed in glaucoma patients. The inferior temporal region of the ONH in particular is marked by low collagen density, which corresponds with clinical observations identifying this region as being more susceptible to damage during the onset of glaucoma. Further application of this technique will help characterize the relationship of age, race and gender on the morphology of the LC.

Memantine blocks mitochondrial OPA1 and cytochrome c release and subsequent apoptotic cell death in glaucomatous retina

PURPOSE

To determine whether intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation alters OPA1 expression and triggers OPA1 release, as well as whether the uncompetitive N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor antagonist memantine blocks OPA1 release and subsequent apoptotic cell death in glaucomatous DBA/2J mouse retina.

METHODS

Preglaucomatous DBA/2J mice received memantine (5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection, twice daily for 3 months) and IOP in the eyes was measured monthly. RGC loss was counted after FluoroGold labeling. OPA1, Dnm1, Bcl-2, and Bax mRNA were measured by qPCR. OPA1 protein was assessed by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Apoptotic cell death was assessed by TUNEL staining.

RESULTS

Memantine treatment significantly increased RGC survival in glaucomatous DBA/2J mice and increased the 75-kDa OPA1 isoform, but did not alter the 80- and 90-kDa isoforms. The isoforms of OPA1 were significantly increased in the cytosol of the vehicle-treated glaucomatous retinas but were significantly decreased in memantine-treated glaucomatous retinas. OPA1 immunoreactivity was decreased in the photoreceptors of both vehicle- and memantine-treated glaucomatous retinas, but was increased in the outer plexiform layer of only the memantine-treated glaucomatous retinas. Memantine blocked apoptotic cell death in the GCL, increased Bcl-2 gene expression, and decreased Bax gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS

OPA1 release from mitochondria in glaucomatous mouse retina is inhibited by blockade of glutamate receptor activation. Because this OPA1 effect was accompanied by increased Bcl-2 expression, decreased Bax expression, and apoptosis blockade, glutamate receptor activation in the glaucomatous retina may involve a distinct mitochondria-mediated cell death pathway.

An imaging workflow for characterizing phenotypical change in large histological mouse model datasets

MOTIVATION

This paper presents a workflow designed to quantitatively characterize the 3D structural attributes of macroscopic tissue specimens acquired at a micron level resolution using light microscopy. The specific application is a study of the morphological change in a mouse placenta induced by knocking out the retinoblastoma gene.

RESULT

This workflow includes four major components: (i) serial section image acquisition, (ii) image preprocessing, (iii) image analysis involving 2D pair-wise registration, 2D segmentation and 3D reconstruction, and (iv) visualization and quantification of phenotyping parameters. Several new algorithms have been developed within each workflow component. The results confirm the hypotheses that (i) the volume of labyrinth tissue decreases in mutant mice with the retinoblastoma (Rb) gene knockout and (ii) there is more interdigitation at the surface between the labyrinth and spongiotrophoblast tissues in mutant placenta. Additional confidence stem from agreement in the 3D visualization and the quantitative results generated.

AVAILABILITY

The source code is available upon request.

Automated microscopy system for mosaic acquisition and processing

An automatic mosaic acquisition and processing system for a multiphoton microscope is described for imaging large expanses of biological specimens at or near the resolution limit of light microscopy. In a mosaic, a larger image is created from a series of smaller images individually acquired systematically across a specimen. Mosaics allow wide-field views of biological specimens to be acquired without sacrificing resolution, providing detailed views of biological specimens within context. The system is composed of a fast-scanning, multiphoton, confocal microscope fitted with a motorized, high-precision stage and custom-developed software programs for automatic image acquisition, image normalization, image alignment and stitching. Our current capabilities allow us to acquire data sets comprised of thousands to tens of thousands of individual images per mosaic. The large number of individual images involved in creating a single mosaic necessitated software development to automate both the mosaic acquisition and processing steps. In this report, we describe the methods and challenges involved in the routine creation of very large scale mosaics from brain tissue labelled with multiple fluorescent probes.