Etanercept: efficacy and safety for approved indications

Exploring the association between rheumatoid arthritis and non-small cell lung cancer risk: a transcriptomic and drug target-based analysis

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a common subtype of lung cancer that has received considerable attention for its potential association with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, current understanding of the relationship between RA and NSCLC risk remains limited and in-depth studies of molecular mechanisms are lacking.

METHODS

We obtained transcriptomic data of NSCLC from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and performed Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses of differential genes. We then used Mendelian randomisation (MR) analysis to explore the causal relationship between RA and NSCLC, but the results showed no direct causal relationship between RA and NSCLC. In light of this finding, we shifted our research focus to investigate the effect of RA therapeutics on NSCLC risk. A drug-targeted MR analysis of drugs available for the treatment of RA was performed by searching for drugs that target NSCLC differential genes associated with RA.

RESULTS

We found that several of the drugs corresponding to NSCLC differential genes associated with RA are used to treat RA. By drug-targeted MR analysis of drugs, we found that some drugs do have an effect on the risk of developing NSCLC, increasing the risk of developing NSCLC.

CONCLUSION

This study employed transcriptomic analysis and MR of drug targets to elucidate the potential correlation between RA and the risk of developing NSCLC. The identification of NSCLC differentially expressed genes associated with RA and their drug targets has provided new perspectives for an in-depth understanding of the pathogenesis of NSCLC. Furthermore, an additional immune infiltration analysis demonstrated that, in NSCLC tissues, the infiltration levels of specific immune cell subpopulations, including regulatory T cells (Tregs), activated natural killer cells (NK cells) and unpolarised macrophages (M0), exhibited notable differences. These findings emphasise the significant role that immune cell interactions between RA and NSCLC may play in disease progression. Furthermore, through the analysis of validation histology, we have further confirmed the potential role of differential genes associated with RA in the development of NSCLC. The expression levels of these genes demonstrated significant differences in NSCLC samples, providing a basis for possible future therapeutic targets and biomarkers.

Integrative Approaches for the Diagnosis and Management of Erosive Oral Lichen Planus

Erosive oral lichen planus (EOLP) represents a significant challenge in dental and medical management due to its chronic inflammatory nature, painful symptoms, and impact on quality of life. This study aims to evaluate the current diagnostic approach with novel non-invasive techniques, such as dermoscopy, and also the landscape of treatment options for EOLP, focusing on its efficacy, safety, and the challenges that it present in clinical practice. Through a comprehensive literature review, we explored the use of topical corticosteroids, systemic immunosuppressants, biologics, and Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors in treating EOLP, alongside examining patient compliance, psychological impacts, and the risk of adverse effects and recurrence. Our findings reveal that while topical corticosteroids are the cornerstone of EOLP treatment, offering symptomatic relief, their long-term use is limited by side effects and tolerance development. Systemic therapies and biologics provide alternatives for refractory cases but necessitate careful adverse effect monitoring. JAK inhibitors show promise as an innovative treatment avenue but require more evidence on long-term safety and efficacy. This study highlights the necessity of personalized treatment approaches due to the variable disease course and response to treatment, underscoring the importance of a multidisciplinary strategy in managing EOLP. The complexity of EOLP treatment, compounded by its psychological and quality of life impacts, demands ongoing research into targeted therapies, the establishment of standardized treatment protocols, and the development of effective outcome measures to improve patient care and treatment outcomes.

A Novel Etanercept-loaded Nano-emulsion for Targeted Treatment of Inflammatory Arthritis via Draining Lymph Node

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease (AD), and the global incidence rate is 0.5 ~ 1%. Existing medications might reduce symptoms, however, there is no known cure for this illness. Etanercept (EN) can competitively inhibit TNF-α binding to the TNF receptor on the cell surface to treat RA. However, subcutaneous injection of free EN predisposes to systemic distribution and induces immune system hypofunction. Draining lymph nodes (LNs) play a significant role in the onset, maintenance, and progression of RA as they are the primary sites of aberrant immune response and inflammatory cytokine production.

AIM

The purpose of this study was to successfully treat RA with etanercept by encapsulating it in nanoemulsions (NEs/EN) and then delivering it specifically to draining LNs. The EN-loaded NEs were prepared by high-pressure homogenization method and modified with DSPE-mPEG2000 and Ca(OH)2.

METHODS

A novel nano-emulsion (NE) was constructed to deliver EN (NE/EN) to RA-draining LNs. To decrease aggregation and load EN, DSPE-mPEG2000 and Ca(OH)2 were successively decorated on the surface of the lipid injectable emulsions. The hydrodynamic diameter and morphology of NEs/EN were investigated by using a laser particle size analyzer and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. The in vivo fluorescence imaging system was used to study the in vivo LN targeting ability of the formulation. In the therapeutic experiment, NEs/EN was subcutaneously administrated to inhibit the development of the mouse arthritis model.

RESULTS

Circular dichroism spectrum and L929 cell experiment confirmed that NEs encapsulation had no impact on the biological activity of EN. In vivo investigation on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model showed that NEs/EN have good inguinal lymph node targeting capabilities, as well as, anti-inflammatory effect against RA. Compared with the free group, the paw thickness and arthritic score in NEs/EN group were significantly alleviated. Moreover, the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β in NEs/EN-treated mice was lower than that in free EN.

CONCLUSION

NEs/EN effectively improve the effectiveness of EN in the treatment of RA. Our work provides an experimental foundation for expanding the clinical application of EN.

Effectiveness of tumor necrosis factor inhibitors in children with enthesitis-related arthritis: a single-center retrospective analysis

Objective

In children with enthesitis-related arthritis (ERA), the hip and sacroiliac joint function might be impaired if not properly treated. We sought to evaluate the effectiveness of anti-tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) therapy using the inflammatory indicators, Juvenile Arthritis Disease Activity Score 27 (JADAS27) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Methods

We conducted a single-center retrospective study of 134 patients with ERA. We evaluated the effect of anti-TNF therapy on the inflammatory indicators, active joint count, MRI quantitative score, and JADAS27 over 18 months. We used the Spondyloarthritis Research Consortium of Canada (SPARCC) and the Hip Inflammation MRI Scoring System (HIMRISS) scoring systems for hip and sacroiliac joints scoring.

Results

The average age of onset of children with ERA was 11.62 ± 1.95 years, and they were treated with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) combined with biologics (n = 87, 64.93%). There were no differences in HLA-B27 positivity between the biologics and non-biologics treatment groups [66 (49.25%) vs. 68 (50.75%), P > 0.05]. Children who received anti-TNF (71 received etanercept, 13 adalimumab, 2 golimumab, and 1 infliximab) therapy improved significantly. Children with ERA used DMARDs and biologics at baseline (Group A) were followed up to 18 months, and their active joint count (4.29 ± 1.99 vs. 0.76 ± 1.33, P = 0.000), JADAS27 (13.70 ± 4.80 vs. 4.53 ± 4.52, P = 0.000) and MRI quantitative scores (P = 0.001) were significantly lower than those at baseline. Some of the patients (n = 13, 9.70%) were treated with DMARDs at the onset of the disease, but did not show significant improvement (Group B). After 6-18 months of switching to anti-TNF therapy, related indicators of the children were significantly lower than at baseline and 1 month (P < 0.013). At 18 months, a total of 33 patients (n = 74, 44.59%) in Group A and 7 (n = 13, 53.85%) in Group B reached inactive state.

Conclusion

Eighteen months after diagnosis, anti-TNF therapy was found to be effective in children diagnosed with ERA. MRI is important for the early diagnosis of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. TNF-α inhibitors can significantly improve the clinical manifestations of sacroiliac joint and hip involvement in patients with ERA. Overall, the real-world study provides more evidence for precision diagnosis and treatment for other hospitals, families and patients.

Biologic therapies for juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most frequent rheumatic disease of childhood and uveitis is its most common extra-articular manifestation. JIA-associated uveitis (JIA-U) is one of the main causes of visual impairment in children and represents a major challenge for pediatrician and ophthalmologist, due to its insidious onset and sight-threatening complications. Topical glucocorticoids are the first line of treatment, followed by conventional disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), usually methotrexate (MTX). In recent years, new biological drugs targeting specific molecules involved in disease pathogenesis, have significantly improved the prognosis of the disease, especially for cases refractory to conventional therapies. In this review we discuss the role of biological agents in JIA-U, focusing on cytokine blockers and cell-targeted therapies aimed to control ocular inflammation.

Adherence and Persistence to Biological Drugs for Psoriasis: Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Despite the large number of biologics currently available for moderate-to-severe psoriasis, poor adherence and persistence to therapy represent the main issues for both the clinical and economic management of psoriasis. However, the data about adherence and persistence to biologics in psoriasis patients are conflicting. Our aim was to produce summary estimates of adherence and persistence to biologics in adult patients with psoriasis. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies, searching two databases (PubMed and Embase). Sixty-two records met the inclusion criteria, and a meta-analysis was conducted on fifty-five studies. Overall, the proportion of adherent and persistent patients to biological therapy was 0.61 (95% confidence interval: 0.48–0.73) and 0.63 (0.57–0.68), respectively. The highest proportions were found for ustekinumab, while the lowest ones were found for etanercept. The proportions of adherence and persistence to biological drugs in psoriasis patients are sub-optimal. Notably, both proportions largely differ between drugs, suggesting that a more rational use of biologics might ensure better management of psoriasis.

Efficacy and safety of etanercept biosimilar rhTNFR-Fc in Chinese patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: An open-label multicenter observational study

BACKGROUND

Etanercept biosimilar recombinant human TNF-α receptor II: IgG Fc fusion protein (rhTNFR-Fc) has showed its efficacy and safety in Chinese patients with rheumatoid arthritis. However, data on rhTNFR-Fc's application in juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is limited.

METHODS

A prospective, observational, multicenter study was performed at 6 institutes in China from July 2020 to December 2021. In a 24-week follow-up, patients with JIA including polyarticular JIA and enthesitis related arthritis received rhTNFR-Fc plus methotrexate (MTX) treatment. The primary outcome parameters were improvements of cJADAS-10 (clinical Juvenile Arthritis Disease Activity Score), and the secondary outcome parameter was an inactive disease.

RESULTS

60 patients completed at least 12-week follow-up, and 57 completed 24-week follow-up. They had high C reactive protein values (11.6 mg/L) and cJADAS-10 (14.6) at baseline. Thirteen patients had morning stiffness. 33 patients showed synovial thickening, and 34 showed bone marrow edemas on MRI. Ultrasonography demonstrated significant joint effusions in 43 patients. The cJADAS-10 sharply decreased from 14.66 at the baseline to 2.4 at 24 weeks of rhTNFR-Fc therapy, respectively (P < 0.01). About half of patients achieved inactive disease at 24 weeks of therapy. Compared with the baseline, the number of patients with morning stiffness, joint effusions, bone marrow edema and synovial thickening on MRI significantly decreased at 24 weeks. Adverse events were consistent with known side effects of biologic agents.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study indicated that the combination of rhTNFR-Fc and MTX significantly improve symptoms and disease activity of children with JIA. This study suggests etanercept biosimilar rhTNFR-Fc as an effective and safe therapy for children with JIA.

A review of JAK-STAT signalling in the pathogenesis of spondyloarthritis and the role of JAK inhibition

Spondyloarthritis (SpA) comprises a group of chronic inflammatory diseases with overlapping clinical, genetic and pathophysiological features including back pain, peripheral arthritis, psoriasis, enthesitis and dactylitis. Several cytokines are involved in the pathogenesis of SpA, variously contributing to each clinical manifestation. Many SpA-associated cytokines, including IL-23, IL-17, IL-6, type I/II interferon and tumour necrosis factor signal directly or indirectly via the Janus kinase (JAK)–signal transducer and activator of transcription pathway. JAK signalling also regulates development and maturation of cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems. Accordingly, disruption of this signalling pathway by small molecule oral JAK inhibitors can inhibit signalling implicated in SpA pathogenesis. Herein we discuss the role of JAK signalling in the pathogenesis of SpA and summarize the safety and efficacy of JAK inhibition by reference to relevant SpA clinical trials.

Risk of Developing Melanoma With Systemic Agents Used to Treat Psoriasis: A Review of the Literature

Background

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease induced by autoimmune-like dysregulation of the immune system. Treatment options have drastically evolved in recent years, and treatment advances that target specific cytokines and other molecules involved in dysregulation have had a profound effect in controlling the disease.

Objective

We reviewed the literature to assess the risk of developing melanoma with conventional therapies and newer agents used to treat psoriasis.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search using Medline (via Ovid) and Embase was conducted.

Results

The majority of studies reviewed reported insignificant results. Potential risk for melanoma was identified for only 3 out of 15 anti-psoriatic treatments analyzed: adalimumab (relative risk 1.8, 95% CI 1.06-3.00), etanercept (relative risk 2.35, 95% CI 1.46-3.77) and infliximab (Empirical Bayes Geometric Mean 7.90, 95% CI 7.13-8.60). The confidence intervals provided are from prior studies. There are not enough collective data on newer agents to make any conclusions on risk.

Conclusions

We were unable to identify any substantial risk for developing melanoma due to the use of anti-psoriatic treatments. Until additional long-term registry data become available, it would be prudent to continue screening patients with psoriasis at baseline and periodically for melanoma when these agents are used.

Use of Immunomodulating Drugs and Risk of Cutaneous Melanoma: A Nationwide Nested Case-Control Study

PURPOSE

Cutaneous melanoma is among the fastest growing malignancies in Norway and ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure is the primary environmental risk factor. Immunomodulating drugs can increase skin photosensitivity and suppress immune responses, and by such mechanisms influence melanoma risk. We, therefore, aimed to examine the associations between use of immunomodulating drugs and melanoma risk, at a nationwide population level.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In the Cancer Registry of Norway, we identified all cases aged 18-85 with a first primary cutaneous melanoma diagnosed in 2007-2015 (n=12,106). These were matched to population controls from the Norwegian National Registry 1:10 (n=118,564), on sex and year of birth using risk set sampling. Information on prescribed drugs (2004-2015) was obtained by linkage to the Norwegian Prescription Database (NorPD). Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate rate ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for associations between use of immunomodulating drugs (immunosuppressants and corticosteroids) and melanoma risk, adjusted for ambient UVR and other drug use.

RESULTS

Compared with ≤1 prescription, use of ≥8 prescriptions of immunosuppressants was associated with increased risk of melanoma (RR 1.50, 95% CI 1.27, 1.77). Similar associations were found for subgroups of immunosuppressants: drugs typically prescribed to organ transplant recipients (OTRs) (RR 2.02, 95% CI 1.35, 3.03) and methotrexate (RR 1.27, 95% CI 1.04, 1.55). Similar results were found for high levels of cumulative doses and across all histological subtypes. Use of corticosteroids was not associated with melanoma risk.

CONCLUSION

We found a positive association between use of immunosuppressants and melanoma risk, with the highest risk seen for drugs prescribed to OTRs. Knowledge about this risk increase is important for physicians and users of these drugs, for intensified surveillance, awareness and cautious sun exposure.

Safety update of etanercept treatment for moderate to severe plaque psoriasis

Introduction: Conventional topical therapies and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) for patients with psoriasis are often linked to inadequate outcomes and risk of multiple adverse effects. Biologic agents such as etanercept (ETN) have revolutionized the therapeutic management of psoriasis, allowing the treatment of most difficult cases, and fragile patients.Areas covered: The authors searched PubMed using the term 'psoriasis,' 'etanercept,' and 'safety.' Articles considered by the authors to be most relevant, such as randomized controlled studies, cohort studies, and review articles placing emphasis on studies of efficacy and safety were selected. Case reports and letters relating to safety were also included. The main sources of data referenced by these articles were also included in the review. Besides, to get the relevant studies, the reference lists were examined to identify the potentially available studies. The aim of this review is to describe the safety profile of ETN, used for psoriasis treatment, focusing on related clinical implications.Expert opinion: ETN has a favorable safety profile, and its use should be largely considered in psoriatic patients. Caution should be recommended in case of chronic heart failure, autoimmune disease, previous malignancies, familial history of demyelinating diseases, latent TBC infection, chronic HBV and HCV infection or HIV.

Histiocytoid Sweet syndrome successfully treated with etanercept

We report the first case of a 34-year-old woman with histiocytoid Sweet syndrome (HSS) that was successfully treated with etanercept. HSS is a rare histological variant of acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis that was described by Requena et al in 2005. It is distinguished by dermal infiltration by mononuclear cells with a histiocytic morphology. To date there are three reported cases of the use of etanercept in the treatment of classic febrile neutrophilic dermatosis but none targeting this disease variant. Our patient presented with a 6-month history of scattered erythematous papules on the neck, trunk, and upper and lower limbs bilaterally. Clinical findings and histopathological evaluation were highly suggestive of HSS. After 32 months of refractory disease activity, our patient was initiated on a regimen of etanercept 1 mg/kg subcutaneously twice weekly and topical desoximetasone 0.05% ointment twice daily as required. To date, our patient has achieved 37 months of remission.

Long-term etanercept retention patterns and factors associated with treatment discontinuation: a retrospective cohort study using Canadian claims-level data

To examine 12-month retention rates over 6 years of etanercept patients in Canada, and to identify factors associated with treatment discontinuation. A retrospective cohort study was conducted using longitudinal prescription drug claims data from IQVIA Private Drug Plan database (PDP), Ontario Public Drug Plan database (OPDP), and Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec database (RAMQ). Between 07/2008 and 06/2010, bio-naïve patients who initiated etanercept were identified and followed for 72 months. Twelve-month retention rates were estimated in one-year increments and factors associated with time to discontinuation over the 72-month period were identified using a Cox proportional hazards regression model. The study identified 4528 etanercept patients (61% female, 85% rheumatic diseases, and 15% psoriasis). Twelve-month etanercept retention rates increased significantly for patients following their first year on therapy (p < 0.0001), with 66% of patients retained at year 1 vs. 79, 82, 84, 83, and 79% at years 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively. 17.1% (n = 771) of patients were retained for the entire 72-month study. Patients with psoriasis were at increased risk (HR 1.199; p < 0.0001); while public drug coverage plan patients (OPDP HR 0.721; p < 0.0001 and RAMQ HR 0.537; p < 0.0001) were at decreased risk of treatment discontinuation. Twelve-month etanercept retention rates increased significantly for patients following their first year on therapy. Indication and drug coverage plan were associated with patients' time to etanercept discontinuation. With a better understanding of factors associated with retention, programs can be designed to address the specific needs of at-risk groups while supporting patients stable on therapy.

Certolizumab pegol for the treatment of chronic plaque psoriasis: Results through 48 weeks of a phase 3, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, etanercept- and placebo-controlled study (CIMPACT)

BACKGROUND

Phase 2 psoriasis studies with the Fc-free, PEGylated, anti-tumor necrosis factor biologic certolizumab pegol demonstrated meaningful clinical activity.

OBJECTIVE

Assess safety and efficacy of certolizumab in adults with moderate-to-severe chronic plaque psoriasis.

METHODS

Patients were randomized 3:3:1:3 to certolizumab 400 mg, certolizumab 200 mg, or placebo every 2 weeks for 16 weeks or etanercept 50 mg twice weekly for 12 weeks. Certolizumab-treated patients achieving a ≥75% reduction in Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) at week 16 from baseline PASI were rerandomized to certolizumab or placebo for 32 weeks. The primary endpoint was responder rate (≥75% reduction in PASI from baseline PASI) versus placebo (primary analysis) and etanercept (secondary analysis) at week 12; secondary endpoints included responder rates on various measures versus placebo at weeks 12, 16, and 48. Safety was assessed by treatment-emergent adverse events.

RESULTS

All endpoints were significantly greater for certolizumab versus placebo with the greatest response seen with 400 mg. Certolizumab 400 mg was superior to and 200 mg was noninferior to etanercept. Adverse events were consistent with the anti-tumor necrosis factor class of drugs.

LIMITATIONS

Etanercept was administered by unblinded study staff or self-administered, but efficacy assessments were performed by a blinded assessor.

CONCLUSION

Both certolizumab regimens improved psoriasis symptoms, with a greater response seen with the higher dose. No new safety signals were observed.

Certolizumab pegol for the treatment of chronic plaque psoriasis: Results through 48 weeks from 2 phase 3, multicenter, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled studies (CIMPASI-1 and CIMPASI-2)

BACKGROUND

Certolizumab pegol, the only Fc-free, PEGylated anti-tumor necrosis factor biologic, demonstrated clinically meaningful improvements suggestive of a positive risk-benefit balance in phase 2 studies in adults with moderate-to-severe chronic plaque psoriasis.

OBJECTIVE

Assess certolizumab efficacy and safety versus placebo in phase 3 studies.

METHODS

Patients with moderate-to-severe chronic plaque psoriasis were randomized 2:2:1 to certolizumab 400 mg, certolizumab 200 mg, or placebo every 2 weeks. At week 16, certolizumab-treated patients achieving a 50% reduction in Psoriasis Area and Severity Index continued treatment through week 48. Coprimary endpoints were week 16 responder rates, defined as a 75% reduction in Psoriasis Area and Severity Index and Physician's Global Assessment 0/1 (clear/almost clear) and ≥2-point improvement. Safety was assessed by treatment-emergent adverse events.

RESULTS

Week-16 endpoints were significantly greater for both doses of certolizumab versus placebo, and the responses were maintained through week 48. For most measures, improvement was numerically greater for certolizumab 400 mg. No unexpected safety signals were identified.

LIMITATION

There was no active comparator.

CONCLUSION

Treatment with either certolizumab 400 mg or 200 mg every 2 weeks was associated with significant and clinically meaningful improvements in moderate-to-severe psoriasis. The 400-mg dose could provide additional clinical benefit. The safety profile was consistent with the therapeutic class.

Microenvironmental networks promote tumor heterogeneity and enrich for metastatic cancer stem-like cells in Luminal-A breast tumor cells

The roles of the tumor microenvironment (TME) in generating intra-tumoral diversity within each specific breast cancer subtype are far from being fully elucidated. In this study, we exposed Luminal-A breast cancer cells in culture to combined “TME Stimulation”, representing three typical arms of the breast TME: hormonal (estrogen), inflammatory (tumor necrosis factor α) and growth-promoting (epidermal growth factor). In addition to enriching the tumor cell population with CD44+/β1+ cells (as we previously published), TME Stimulation selected for CD44+/CD24^low/− stem-like cells, that were further enriched by doxorubicin treatment and demonstrated high plasticity in vitro and in vivo. Knock-down experiments revealed that CD44 and Zeb1 regulated CD24 and β1 expression and controlled differently cell spreading and formation of cellular protrusions. TME-enriched CD44+/CD24^low/− stem-like cells promoted dissemination to bones and lymph nodes, whereas CD44+/β1+ cells had a low metastatic potential. Mixed co-injections of TME-enriched CD44+/CD24^low/− and CD44+/β1+ sub-populations generated metastases populated mostly by CD44+/CD24^low/−-derived cells. Thus, combined activities of several TME factors select for CD44+/CD24^low/− stem-like cells that dictate the metastatic phenotype of Luminal-A breast tumor cells, suggesting that therapeutic modalities targeting the TME could be introduced as a potential strategy of inhibiting the detrimental stem-like sub-population in this disease subtype.

Drugs for Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases: From Small Molecule Compounds to Anti-TNF Biologics

Although initially described as an anti-tumor mediator, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) is generally considered as the master pro-inflammatory cytokine. It plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), inflammatory bowel disease, ankylosing spondylitis (AS), and psoriasis. Consequently, anti-TNF therapy has become mainstay treatment for autoimmune diseases. Historically, anti-inflammatory agents were developed before the identification of TNF. Salicylates, the active components of Willow spp., were identified in the mid-19th century for the alleviation of pain, fever, and inflammatory responses. Study of this naturally occurring compound led to the discovery of aspirin, which was followed by the development of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) due to the chemical advances in the 19th–20th centuries. Initially, the most of NSAIDs were organic acid, but the non-acidic compounds were also identified as NSAIDs. Although effective in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, NSAIDs have some undesirable and adverse effect, such as ulcers, kidney injury, and bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract. In the past two decades, anti-TNF biologics were developed. Drugs belong to this class include soluble TNF receptor 2 fusion protein and anti-TNF antibodies. The introduction of anti-TNF therapeutics has revolutionized the management of autoimmune diseases, such as RA, psoriatic arthritis (PsA), plaque psoriasis (PP), AS, CD and ulcerative colitis (UC). Nevertheless, up to 40% of patients have no response to anti-TNF treatment. Furthermore, this treatment is associated with some adverse effects such as increased risk of infection, and even triggered the de novo development of autoimmune diseases. Such harmful effect of anti-TNF treatment is likely caused by the global inhibition of TNF biological functions. Therefore, specific inhibition of TNF receptor (TNFR1 or TNFR2) may represent a safer and more effective treatment, as proposed by some recent studies. In this review article, the historical development of anti-inflammatory drugs after World War II as briefly described above will be reviewed and analyzed. The future trend in the development of novel TNF receptor-targeting therapeutics will be discussed in the context of latest progress in the research of TNF biology.

Influence of etanercept on leptin and ghrelin secretion in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis

Objective

To assess possible changes in leptin and ghrelin secretion due to etanercept in juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA).

Methods

50 patients with JIA and 16 age-matched controls were enrolled into this prospective, cross-sectional study. Serum leptin, total and acyl ghrelin were measured in addition to white blood cell (WBC) and lymphocyte counts.

Results

25 patients received etanercept and 25 conventional therapies (including methotrexate) for JIA. There was no difference between treatment and control groups in leptin or ghrelin levels and no evidence of a relationship between leptin and ghrelin in patients with JIA. In all children with JIA there was a correlation between leptin and body mass index (BMI). However, compared with children in the conventional treatment group, children in the etanercept group showed a positive correlation between total ghrelin and BMI and those with a low BMI showed a negative correlation between acyl ghrelin and BMI.

Conclusion

No differences in leptin and ghrelin concentrations were found when patients with JIA and controls were compared or when patients who received etanercept were compared with those who received conventional treatment for JIA.

An Update on Medical Treatment Options for Hidradenitis Suppurativa

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by recurrent inflammatory nodules mostly located in the armpits and groin. Over the years multiple treatments for HS have been proposed; however, to date a cure is still lacking. In this update we provide an overview of most drug treatments reported on for HS, where possible with their mode of action and side effects. In mild cases, clindamycin lotion or resorcinol cream have proven effective. Tetracyclines are a first-line systemic option in more widespread or severe cases, followed by the combination of clindamycin and rifampicin. However, the recurrence rate is high after discontinuation of clindamycin plus rifampicin combination therapy. Long-term treatment with retinoids, especially acitretin is feasible, although teratogenicity has to be taken into account in females of reproductive age. Multiple anti-inflammatory drugs have been suggested for HS, such as dapsone, fumarates or cyclosporine. However, their effectiveness in HS is based on small case series with varying results. If most common treatments have failed, biologics (e.g., infliximab or adalimumab) are the next step. Although not addressed in this review, surgical interventions are often needed to achieve remission.

Cardiovascular risk evaluation through heart rate variability analysis in psoriatic patients before and after 24 weeks of etanercept therapy: Prospective study

Objective

To assess the influence of etanercept, an anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α agent, on autonomic cardiovascular regulation in young patients with moderate-to-severe psoriasis without cardiovascular risk factors.

Methods

Patients with psoriasis underwent 5-min electrocardiogram (ECG) recordings before and after 24 weeks of etanercept therapy. Linear heart rate variability (HRV) analysis was performed.

Results

The study recruited 19 patients. Frequency-domain analysis showed a significant decrease in oscillatory components attributable to sympathetic activity (LF%) and a significant decrease in low frequency/high frequency (LF/HF) ratio following etanercept therapy.

Conclusion

Treatment with etanercept in patients with moderate-to-severe psoriasis could affect cardiovascular autonomic regulation, and subsequently reduce cardiovascular risk.

Possible alternative therapies for oral lichen planus cases refractory to steroid therapies

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disorder with a multifactorial etiopathogenesis. Immune dysregulation plays a critical role in the development and progression of this disease. Patients' lives may be affected by pain caused by atrophic-erosive lesions. Given the obscure etiology, treatment is usually symptomatic. Topical steroids remain the mainstay of management. However, their therapeutic benefits are not always evident. There are substantial data on the possible therapeutic strategies that are effective in OLP cases refractory to steroids. This review provides an overview of the current approaches for the management of steroid-refractory OLP. The miscellaneous treatment regimens include tacrolimus, pimecrolimus, thalidomide, low-level laser therapy, photodynamic therapy, and surgical excision. Some results obtained from these studies were promising. However, further studies, especially randomized controlled trials with strict inclusion and exclusion criteria and larger sample sizes, are required for the evaluation of the long-term safety and efficacy of these therapies.

Therapies negating neuroinflammation after brain trauma

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) elicits a complex secondary injury response, with neuroinflammation as a crucial central component. Long thought to be solely a deleterious factor, the neuroinflammatory response has recently been shown to be far more intricate, with both beneficial and detrimental consequences depending on the timing, magnitude and specific immune composition of the response post-injury. Despite extensive preclinical and clinical research into mechanisms of secondary injury after TBI, no effective neuroprotective therapy has been identified, with potential candidates repeatedly proving disappointing in the clinic. The neuroinflammatory response offers a promising avenue for therapeutic targeting, aiming to quell the deleterious consequences without influencing its function in providing a neurotrophic environment supportive of repair. The present review firstly describes the findings of recent clinical trials that aimed to modulate inflammation as a means of neuroprotection. Secondly, we discuss promising multifunctional and single-target anti-inflammatory candidates either currently in trial, or with ample experimental evidence supporting clinical application. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:Brain injury and recovery.

Potential targeted therapies for the inflammatory pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a severe neuropsychiatric complication of acute and chronic liver dysfunction, and is characterized by a spectrum that ranges from mild neuropsychological disturbances to coma. Although ammonia plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of HE, the plasma concentrations of ammonia and manifest symptoms of HE are not always consistent in patients with HE. Recently, a substantial body of evidence has indicated that inflammation acts in concert with ammonia in the pathogenesis of HE. Meanwhile, emerging novel and potential therapeutic strategies, including N-acetylcysteine, hypothermia, minocycline, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, tumour necrosis factor-alpha antagonists and p38 inhibitors, have been reported to ameliorate systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation, improve or reverse neuropsychiatric manifestations, and prevent the onset and progression of HE in patients and/or animal models of acute or chronic liver failure. These results point to the possible therapeutic utility of decreasing inflammation in the treatment of HE, and translation of these experimental results to the clinic may provide novel and promising therapeutic approaches for patients with HE secondary to acute or chronic liver failure. This review will provide an overview of these potential targeted therapies in the prophylaxis and treatment of HE.

Nodular Vasculitis That Developed during Etanercept (Enbrel) Treatment in a Patient with Psoriasis

Nodular vasculitis was introduced by Montgomery for cases of erythema induratum-like lesions that were not associated with tuberculosis. Nodular vasculitis has been associated with both nontuberculous infections and noninfectious conditions. However, there has been no report on the development of nodular vasculitis during tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitor treatment. A 28-year-old man visited our clinic for the treatment of severe psoriasis with a 20-year history. Subcutaneous injection of etanercept (25 mg, twice weekly) was started. One year later, erythematous nodules developed on his lower leg. A skin biopsy showed lobular panniculitis with extensive necrosis and vasculitis. To exclude latent tuberculosis, an assay specific for Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens was performed, with a negative result. After stopping etanercept under the diagnosis of nodular vasculitis associated with etanercept, the lesions gradually disappeared, leaving depressed scars in 3 months. There has been no recurrence after 6 months of follow-up.

Evolution of Pediatric Chronic Disease Treatment Decisions: A Qualitative, Longitudinal View of Parents' Decision-Making Process

BACKGROUND

In the context of pediatric chronic conditions, patients and families are called upon repeatedly to make treatment decisions. However, little is known about how their decision making evolves over time. The objective was to understand parents' processes for treatment decision making in pediatric chronic conditions.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative, prospective longitudinal study using recorded clinic visits and individual interviews. After consent was obtained from health care providers, parents, and patients, clinic visits during which treatment decisions were expected to be discussed were video-recorded. Parents then participated in sequential telephone interviews about their decision-making experience. Data were coded by 2 people and analyzed using framework analysis with sequential, time-ordered matrices.

RESULTS

21 families, including 29 parents, participated in video-recording and interviews. We found 3 dominant patterns of decision evolution. Each consisted of a series of decision events, including conversations, disease flares, and researching of treatment options. Within all 3 patterns there were both constant and evolving elements of decision making, such as role perceptions and treatment expectations, respectively. After parents made a treatment decision, they immediately turned to the next decision related to the chronic condition, creating an iterative cycle.

CONCLUSION

In this study, decision making was an iterative process occurring in 3 distinct patterns. Understanding these patterns and the varying elements of parents' decision processes is an essential step toward developing interventions that are appropriate to the setting and that capitalize on the skills families may develop as they gain experience with a chronic condition. Future research should also consider the role of children and adolescents in this decision process.

Comparative Biochemical and Functional Analysis of Viral and Human Secreted Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Decoy Receptors

The blockade of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) by etanercept, a soluble version of the human TNF receptor 2 (hTNFR2), is a well established strategy to inhibit adverse TNF-mediated inflammatory responses in the clinic. A similar strategy is employed by poxviruses, encoding four viral TNF decoy receptor homologues (vTNFRs) named cytokine response modifier B (CrmB), CrmC, CrmD, and CrmE. These vTNFRs are differentially expressed by poxviral species, suggesting distinct immunomodulatory properties. Whereas the human variola virus and mouse ectromelia virus encode one vTNFR, the broad host range cowpox virus encodes all vTNFRs. We report the first comprehensive study of the functional and binding properties of these four vTNFRs, providing an explanation for their expression profile among different poxviruses. In addition, the vTNFRs activities were compared with the hTNFR2 used in the clinic. Interestingly, CrmB from variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, is the most potent TNFR of those tested here including hTNFR2. Furthermore, we demonstrate a new immunomodulatory activity of vTNFRs, showing that CrmB and CrmD also inhibit the activity of lymphotoxin β. Similarly, we report for the first time that the hTNFR2 blocks the biological activity of lymphotoxin β. The characterization of vTNFRs optimized during virus-host evolution to modulate the host immune response provides relevant information about their potential role in pathogenesis and may be used to improve anti-inflammatory therapies based on soluble decoy TNFRs.

Immediate neurological recovery following perispinal etanercept years after brain injury

Positron emission tomographic brain imaging and pathological examination have revealed that a chronic, intracerebral neuroinflammatory response lasting for years after a single brain injury may occur in humans. Evidence suggests the immune signaling molecule, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), is centrally involved in this pathology through its modulation of microglial activation, role in synaptic dysfunction, and induction of depressive symptoms and neuropathic pain. Etanercept is a recombinant TNF receptor fusion protein and potent TNF inhibitor that has been found to reduce microglial activation and neuropathic pain in multiple experimental models. We report that a single dose of perispinal etanercept produced an immediate, profound, and sustained improvement in expressive aphasia, speech apraxia, and left hemiparesis in a patient with chronic, intractable, debilitating neurological dysfunction present for more than 3 years after acute brain injury. These results indicate that acute brain injury-induced pathologic levels of TNF may provide a therapeutic target that can be addressed years after injury. Perispinal administration of etanercept is capable of producing immediate relief from brain injury-mediated neurological dysfunction.

Incidence of herpes zoster infections in juvenile idiopathic arthritis patients

The risk of herpes zoster among patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) exposed to biologics has not been evaluated. We determined incidence rates of herpes zoster among children with JIA in correlation with medication at time of occurrence and total drug exposure. The German biologics register database was used to identify patients with herpes zoster. Crude infection rates and incidence ratios (IRR) were compared to published rates. Demographics and overall exposure and particular exposure time to corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs and biologics were analyzed. The JIA cohort included 3,042 patients with 5,557.9 person-years of follow-up; 1,628 have used corticosteroids, 2,930 methotrexate and 1,685 etanercept. In total, 17 herpes zoster events have been documented [6/1,000 patients (3.5-9.0); 3.1/1,000 patient-years (1.9-4.9)]. Thus, the incidence rate in JIA patients was higher than expected [IRR 2.9 (1.8-4.5), p < 0.001]. In all patients, the event resolved completely. There were two complications, one patient developed intercostal neuralgia, and one had a recurrent herpes zoster. Compared to the healthy population, a significant higher IRR is observed in JIA patients who received a monotherapy with etanercept or in combination with steroids and methotrexate, but not in JIA patients exposed to methotrexate without biologics. In comparison with our control group of patients treated with methotrexate, the IRR was higher for exposure to etanercept monotherapy and combination of etanercept and corticosteroids irrespective of methotrexate use. A generally higher incidence rate in JIA patients treated with etanercept was observed. No serious or refractory manifestations occurred.

Chronic inflammatory diseases: do immunological patterns drive the choice of biotechnology drugs? A critical review

Chronic inflammatory diseases represent a heterogeneous group of conditions that can affect practically any organ or system. An increasing number of biologic agents have been developed to selectively target the cell populations and signaling pathways involved in chronic inflammation, including cytokines, monoclonal antibodies and engineered receptors. This approach has been remarkably successful in alleviating some of the signs and symptoms of refractory autoimmune diseases. The use of this therapeutic strategy is likely to increase with the introduction of biosimilar agents. The different nature of these biological products makes the comparison of their pharmaceutical and clinical characteristics difficult, including safety and potency and these issues may be particularly relevant in the case of biosimilars. In addition, the heterogeneity of autoimmune diseases and of autoimmune patients, further adds to the complexity of choosing the right drug for each patient and predicting efficacy and safety of the treatment. In this review, we summarize actual knowledge about current biological agents and their use in autoimmune diseases, with a special emphasis for rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases and psoriasis. The purpose of this analysis is to address the most critical issues raised by the rapid advancements in this field over recent years, and to acknowledge the potentially valuable gains brought about by the increasing availability of these new biologic agents.

Long term efficacy and safety of etanercept in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis

Psoriasis is a chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory disease affecting both the skin and joints. Approximately 20% of patients suffer a moderate to severe form of skin disease and up to 30% have joint involvement. Standard therapies for psoriasis include topical medications, phototherapy, and both oral systemic and biological therapies whereas therapies for psoriatic arthritis include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs followed by disease modifying antirheumatic drugs and/or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α inhibitors and interleukin-12/23p40 inhibitors. Treatment of both diseases is typically driven by disease severity. In the past decade, major advances in the understanding of the immunopathogenesis of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis have led to the development of numerous biological therapies, which have revolutionized the treatment for moderate to severe plaque psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Anti-TNF-α agents are currently considered as first line biological therapies for the treatment of moderate to severe psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Currently approved anti-TNF-α agents include etanercept, adalimumab, and infliximab for psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis as well as golimumab and certolizumab for psoriatic arthritis. In this article, we aim to evaluate the long term safety and efficacy of etanercept in psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.

Schizophrenia-like disorder associated with etanercept treatment

A report on the development of a schizophrenia-like disorder after the start of etanercept in a middle-aged woman who had no history of psychiatric illness. Etanercept was discontinued and she was treated with sulpiride for 6 months. There has been no relapse of psychosis since etanercept was discontinued, despite being off sulpiride for 3 months. Unfortunately, subsequent treatment she has had for her rheumatoid arthritis has not afforded the same level of symptom control as etanercept. This report points to the need for more research into the differential impact of reduced-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α levels in the different regions of the brain. It highlights the need for pharmacovigilance especially in individuals on etanercept and other TNF inhibitors. It also highlights the need to systematically consider differential diagnosis before arriving at a diagnosis of psychiatric illness even in the presence of highly suggestive constellation of symptoms.

Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor alpha reduces the outgrowth of hepatic micrometastasis of colorectal tumors in a mouse model of liver ischemia-reperfusion injury

Background

Patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) often develop liver metastases, in which case surgery is considered the only potentially curative treatment option. However, liver surgery is associated with a risk of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury, which is thought to promote the growth of colorectal liver metastases. The influence of IR-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) elevation in the process still is unknown. To investigate the role of TNF-α in the growth of pre-existing micrometastases in the liver following IR, we used a mouse model of colorectal liver metastases. In this model, mice received IR treatment seven days after intrasplenic injections of colorectal CT26 cells. Prior to IR treatment, either TNF-α blocker Enbrel or low-dose TNF-α, which could inhibit IR-induced TNF-α elevation, was administered by intraperitoneal injection.

Results

Hepatic IR treatment significantly promoted CT26 tumor growth in the liver, but either Enbrel or low-dose TNF-α pretreatment reversed this trend. Further studies showed that the CT26 + IR group prominently increased the levels of ALT and AST, liver necrosis, inflammatory infiltration and the expressions of hepatic IL-6, MMP9 and E-selectin compared to those of CT26 group. Inhibition of TNF-α elevation remarkably attenuated the increases of these liver inflammatory damage indicators and tumor-promoting factors.

Conclusion

These findings suggested that inhibition of TNF-α elevation delayed the IR-enhanced outgrowth of colorectal liver metastases by reducing IR-induced inflammatory damage and the formation of tumor-promoting microenvironments. Both Enbrel and low-dose TNF-α represented the potential therapeutic approaches for the protection of colorectal liver metastatic patients against IR injury-induced growth of liver micrometastases foci.

Etanercept administration to neonatal SH3BP2 knock-in cherubism mice prevents TNF-α-induced inflammation and bone loss

Cherubism is a genetic disorder of the craniofacial skeleton caused by gain-of-function mutations in the signaling adaptor protein, SH3-domain binding protein 2 (SH3BP2). In a knock-in mouse model for cherubism, we previously demonstrated that homozygous mutant mice develop T/B cell-independent systemic macrophage inflammation leading to bone erosion and joint destruction. Homozygous mice develop multiostotic bone lesions whereas cherubism lesions in humans are limited to jawbones. We identified a critical role of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in the development of autoinflammation by creating homozygous TNF-α-deficient cherubism mutants, in which systemic inflammation and bone destruction were rescued. In this study, we examined whether postnatal administration of an anti-TNF-α antagonist can prevent or ameliorate the disease progression in cherubism mice. Neonatal homozygous mutants, in which active inflammation has not yet developed, were treated with a high dose of etanercept (25 mg/kg, twice/week) for 7 weeks. Etanercept-treated neonatal mice showed strong rescue of facial swelling and bone loss in jaws and calvariae. Destruction of joints was fully rescued in the high-dose group. Moreover, the high-dose treatment group showed a significant decrease in lung and liver inflammatory lesions. However, inflammation and bone loss, which were successfully treated by etanercept administration, recurred after etanercept discontinuation. No significant effect was observed in low-dose-treated (0.5 mg/kg, twice/week) and vehicle-treated groups. In contrast, when 10-week-old cherubism mice with fully active inflammation were treated with etanercept for 7 weeks, even the high-dose administration did not decrease bone loss or lung or liver inflammation. Taken together, the results suggest that anti-TNF-α therapy may be effective in young cherubism patients, if treated before the inflammatory phase or bone resorption occurs. Therefore, early genetic diagnosis and early treatment with anti-TNF-α antagonists may be able to prevent or ameliorate cherubism, especially in patients with a mutation in SH3BP2.

Progression of luminal breast tumors is promoted by ménage à trois between the inflammatory cytokine TNFα and the hormonal and growth-supporting arms of the tumor microenvironment

Breast cancer progression is strongly linked to inflammatory processes, aggravating disease course. The impacts of the inflammatory cytokine TNFα on breast malignancy are not fully substantiated, and they may be affected by cooperativity between TNFα and other protumoral mediators. Here, we show that together with representatives of other important arms of the tumor microenvironment, estrogen (hormonal) and EGF (growth-supporting), TNFα potently induced metastasis-related properties and functions in luminal breast tumor cells, representing the most common type of breast cancer. Jointly, TNFα + Estrogen + EGF had a stronger effect on breast cancer cells than each element alone, leading to the following: (1) extensive cell spreading and formation of FAK/paxillin-enriched cellular protrusions; (2) elevated proportion of tumor cells coexpressing high levels of CD44 and β1 and VLA6; (3) EMT and cell migration; (4) resistance to chemotherapy; (5) release of protumoral factors (CXCL8, CCL2, MMPs). Importantly, the tumor cells used in this study are known to be nonmetastatic under all conditions; nevertheless, they have acquired high metastasizing abilities in vivo in mice, following a brief stimulation by TNFα + Estrogen + EGF. These dramatic findings indicate that TNFα can turn into a strong prometastatic factor, suggesting a paradigm shift in which clinically approved inhibitors of TNFα would be applied in breast cancer therapy.

Is mipomersen ready for clinical implementation? A transatlantic dilemma

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Mipomersen has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration as an orphan drug for patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HoFH). In contrast, the European Medicines Agency advised negatively on the use of mipomersen. In this review, we discuss the efficacy and safety considerations for this discrepancy.

RECENT FINDINGS

On the basis of the results of clinical trials with mipomersen, safety concerns have been raised regarding cardiovascular risk reduction and development of hepatic steatosis. In addition, (long-term) tolerability concerns have been raised predominantly regarding injection site reactions. A pooled analysis of cardiovascular events in phase III trials with mipomersen did not provide evidence for either a positive or negative effect on cardiovascular disease. Although long-term studies with mipomersen are eagerly awaited, hepatic fat content appears to stabilize after 6-12 months notwithstanding continued mipomersen administration.

SUMMARY

HoFH is a disease with an unmet medical need for new lipid-lowering therapies. On the basis of a mean 2.9 mmol/l LDL-cholesterol reduction, mipomersen is expected to reduce cardiovascular risk in HoFH. Available evidence suggests that the fat accumulation associated with this treatment differs from steatohepatitis, which is a progressive and damaging liver disease. No evidence is available suggesting that injection site reactions because of mipomersen treatment will result in safety issues.

Matrix metalloproteinase 13 modulates intestinal epithelial barrier integrity in inflammatory diseases by activating TNF

Several pathological processes, such as sepsis and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), are associated with impairment of intestinal epithelial barrier. Here, we investigated the role of matrix metalloproteinase MMP13 in these diseases. We observed that MMP13^−/− mice display a strong protection in LPS- and caecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis. We could attribute this protection to reduced LPS-induced goblet cell depletion, endoplasmic reticulum stress, permeability and tight junction destabilization in the gut of MMP13^−/− mice compared to MMP13^+/+ mice. Both in vitro and in vivo, we found that MMP13 is able to cleave pro-TNF into bioactive TNF. By LC-MS/MS, we identified three MMP13 cleavage sites, which proves that MMP13 is an alternative TNF sheddase next to the TNF converting enzyme TACE. Similarly, we found that the same mechanism was responsible for the observed protection of the MMP13^−/− mice in a mouse model of DSS-induced colitis. We identified MMP13 as an important mediator in sepsis and IBD via the shedding of TNF. Hence, we propose MMP13 as a novel drug target for diseases in which damage to the gut is essential.

Educational session as a tool to increase patient satisfaction of switching etanercept from the prefilled syringe to the autoinjection pen

OBJECTIVE

To assess patients' acceptability of switching etanercept from the prefilled syringe to the autoinjection pen in rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis patients.

METHODS

A two-phase cross-sectional study was designed. First phase: consisted of a 2 h information/education session to present the pen and learning its use. At the end of the session, patients completed a self-administered questionnaire regarding the meeting usefulness. Second phase: eight single-use prefilled Enbrel® Pen Myclic were provided.

RESULTS

The number of patients included were 104 (rheumatoid arthritis 58, psoriatic arthritis 31, ankylosing spondylitis 15). Attendees showed a high satisfaction degree with the meeting. A high percentage of patients (74.4 - 95.1%) rated the items of the questionnaire as 'very much'. Patients reported > 95% adherence to etanercept autoinjection pen. The percentage of patients self-administering etanercept increased from 66 to 94% and the percentage of those attending primary care for injection decreased from 23 to 2%. It produced important cost savings, in our study represents > 22.000 euros/year. Pain at the injection site was significantly reduced with the use of autoinjection pen. Ninty seven (93%) patients considered that the use of the autoinjection pen was easier than the syringe and 94.2% chose the pen as their preferred delivery system.

CONCLUSIONS

The autoinjection pen is an advantageous delivery option for etanercept. This study provides further evidence to support that the education strategy is a valid method for switching anti-TNF-α drugs from syringe to pen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis.

Antidepressant effects of TNF-α blockade in an animal model of depression

Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) have repeatedly been shown to play a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of depression. Therefore, we tested the possible antidepressant-like effect of the anti-TNF-α drug etanercept in an animal model of chronic mild stress. Male Wistar rats were assigned to a non-restrained and a restrained protocol for 5 weeks. From beginning of the third week the animals were treated either with Ringer solution daily or with etanercept twice a week (0.3 mg/kg, i.p.) instead of Ringer solution (n = 12 each). As reference, imipramine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered in a third restraint group daily. Naïve non-treated non-restrained rats served as healthy controls (n = 12). In the forced swim test (FST) depression-like behaviour induced by restraint was recorded as enhanced immobile time and reduced climbing activity of the vehicle-treated group in comparison to the naïve and the non-restrained vehicle treated group. The treatment with etanercept significantly reduced the depression-like effects resulting in reduced immobile time in the FST and intensified climbing behaviour (p < 0.01, p < 0.05), both similar to the antidepressive-like effect of imipramine (p < 0.01 both). The repeated restraint induced a loss of body weight gain in the Ringer-treated group which was not reversed, neither by imipramine nor by etanercept. The antidepressant effects of blocking TNF-α using etanercept may be caused by enhancement of serotonergic or noradrenergic neurotransmission or normalization of stress hormone secretion which has to be substantiated in further studies.

Arthritis gene therapy and its tortuous path into the clinic

Arthritis is a disease of joints. The biology of joints makes them very difficult targets for drug delivery in a manner that is specific and selective. This is especially true for proteinaceous drugs ("biologics"). Gene transfer is the only technology that can solve the delivery problem in a clinically reasonable fashion. There is an abundance of preclinical data confirming that genes can be efficiently transferred to tissues within joints by intra-articular injection using a variety of different vectors in conjunction with ex vivo and in vivo strategies. Using the appropriate gene transfer technologies, long-term, intra-articular expression of anti-arthritic transgenes at therapeutic concentrations can be achieved. Numerous studies confirm that gene therapy is effective in treating experimental models of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and osteoarthritis (OA) in the laboratory. A limited number of clinical trials have been completed, which confirm safety and feasibility but only 3 protocols have reached phase II; as yet, there is no unambiguous evidence of efficacy in human disease. Only 2 clinical trials are presently underway, both phase II studies using allogeneic chondrocytes expressing transforming growth factor-β1 for the treatment of OA. Phase I studies using adeno-associated virus to deliver interleukin-1Ra in OA and interferon-β in RA are going through the regulatory process. It is to be hoped that the recent successes in treating rare, Mendelian diseases by gene therapy will lead to accelerated development of genetic treatments for common, non-Mendelian diseases, such as arthritis.