TiO2 Nanoparticles as Potential Promoting Agents of Fibrillation of α-Synuclein, a Parkinson's Disease-Related Protein

Alpha-Synuclein Aggregation Mechanism in the Presence of Nanomaterials

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the toxic oligomeric and fibrillar phases formed by monomeric alpha-synuclein (α-syn). Certain nanoparticles have been demonstrated to promote protein aggregation, while other nanomaterials have been found to prevent the process. In the current work, we use nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in conjunction with isothermal titration calorimetry to investigate the cause and mechanism of these opposing effects at the amino acid protein level. The interaction of α-syn with two types of nanomaterials was considered: citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and graphene oxide (GO). In the presence of AuNPs, α-syn aggregation is accelerated, whereas in the presence of GO, aggregation is prevented. The study indicates that GO sequesters the NAC region of α-syn monomers through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, leading to a reduced elongation rate, and AuNPs leave the NAC region exposed while binding the N-terminus, leading to higher aggregation. The protein's inclination toward quicker aggregation is explained by the binding of the N-terminus of α-syn with the gold nanoparticles. Conversely, a comparatively stronger interaction with GO causes the nucleation and growth phases to be postponed and inhibits intermolecular interactions. Our finding offers novel experimental insights at the residue level regarding the aggregation of α-syn in the presence of various nanomaterials and creates new opportunities for the development of suitably functionalized nanomaterial-based therapeutic reagents against Parkinson's and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Nanoparticle-Enhanced RT-QuIC (Nano-QuIC) Diagnostic Assay for Misfolded Proteins

Misfolded proteins associated with various neurodegenerative diseases often accumulate in tissues or circulate in biological fluids years before the clinical onset, thus representing ideal diagnostic targets. Real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC), a protein-based seeded-amplification assay, holds great potential for early disease detection, yet challenges remain for routine diagnostic application. Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD), associated with misfolded prion proteins of cervids, serves as an ideal model for evaluating new RT-QuIC methodologies. In this study, we investigate the previously untested hypothesis that incorporating nanoparticles into RT-QuIC assays can enhance their speed and sensitivity when applied to biological samples. We show that adding 50 nm silica nanoparticles to RT-QuIC experiments (termed Nano-QuIC) for CWD diagnostics greatly improves the performance by reducing detection times 2.5-fold and increasing sensitivity 10-fold by overcoming the effect of inhibitors in complex tissue samples. Crucially, no false positives were observed with these 50 nm silica nanoparticles, demonstrating the enhanced reliability and potential for diagnostic application of Nano-QuIC in detecting misfolded proteins.

The Evaluation of Vitamin E and TiO2 Nanoparticles Administration in Parkinson's Rat Model

OBJECTIVE

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a severely debilitating disease for which no suitable treatment has been found so far. In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown therapeutic potential in PD. Thus, in the current research, for the first time, we investigated the effects of vitamin E and TiO₂ nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) on a rat model of PD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this experimental study, after preparation and induction of PD, rats were administrated with vitamin E and TiO₂-NPs. One day after receiving the last dose of treatments, rats were killed and substantia nigra was extracted from the brain and its cell suspension was prepared. In each group, female rats were mated, and after confirmation that the female rats were pregnant by vaginal smear test, the fetus was removed. Cell viability was studied by the MTT method and apoptosis, and necrosis were studied by the flow cytometry technique. Also, after RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis, the expression of Bcl-2 and circRNA 0001518 genes were studied using the real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique. For analyzing the data, two-way ANOVA was used.

RESULTS

The results showed a sharp decrease in cell viability in female PD rats and fetuses resulting from PD female rats. Vitamin E treatment showed the greatest effect on increasing cell viability. Decreased expression of the Bcl-2 gene and increased expression of circRNA 0001518 were observed in PD conditions.

CONCLUSION

Administration of vitamin E may be a good option for reducing PD-induced cell death.

Nanomedicine in the Face of Parkinson's Disease: From Drug Delivery Systems to Nanozymes

The complexity and overall burden of Parkinson's disease (PD) require new pharmacological approaches to counteract the symptomatology while reducing the progressive neurodegeneration of affected dopaminergic neurons. Since the pathophysiological signature of PD is characterized by the loss of physiological levels of dopamine (DA) and the misfolding and aggregation of the alpha-synuclein (α-syn) protein, new proposals seek to restore the lost DA and inhibit the progressive damage derived from pathological α-syn and its impact in terms of oxidative stress. In this line, nanomedicine (the medical application of nanotechnology) has achieved significant advances in the development of nanocarriers capable of transporting and delivering basal state DA in a controlled manner in the tissues of interest, as well as highly selective catalytic nanostructures with enzyme-like properties for the elimination of reactive oxygen species (responsible for oxidative stress) and the proteolysis of misfolded proteins. Although some of these proposals remain in their early stages, the deepening of our knowledge concerning the pathological processes of PD and the advances in nanomedicine could endow for the development of potential treatments for this still incurable condition. Therefore, in this paper, we offer: (i) a brief summary of the most recent findings concerning the physiology of motor regulation and (ii) the molecular neuropathological processes associated with PD, together with (iii) a recapitulation of the current progress in controlled DA release by nanocarriers and (iv) the design of nanozymes, catalytic nanostructures with oxidoreductase-, chaperon, and protease-like properties. Finally, we conclude by describing the prospects and knowledge gaps to overcome and consider as research into nanotherapies for PD continues, especially when clinical translations take place.

TDP-43 CSF Concentrations Increase Exponentially with Age in Metropolitan Mexico City Young Urbanites Highly Exposed to PM2.5 and Ultrafine Particles and Historically Showing Alzheimer and Parkinson's Hallmarks. Brain TDP-43 Pathology in MMC Residents Is Associated with High Cisternal CSF TDP-43 Concentrations

Environmental exposures to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ultrafine particle matter (UFPM) are associated with overlapping Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) hallmark protein pathologies in young Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) urbanites. We measured CSF concentrations of TDP-43 in 194 urban residents, including 92 MMC children aged 10.2 ± 4.7 y exposed to PM2.5 levels above the USEPA annual standard and to high UFPM and 26 low pollution controls (11.5 ± 4.4 y); 43 MMC adults (42.3 ± 15.9 y) and 14 low pollution adult controls (33.1 ± 12.0 y); and 19 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients (52.4 ± 14.1 y). TDP-43 neuropathology and cisternal CSF data from 20 subjects—15 MMC (41.1 ± 18.9 y) and 5 low pollution controls (46 ± 16.01 y)—were included. CSF TDP-43 exponentially increased with age (p < 0.0001) and it was higher for MMC residents. TDP-43 cisternal CSF levels of 572 ± 208 pg/mL in 6/15 MMC autopsy cases forecasted TDP-43 in the olfactory bulb, medulla and pons, reticular formation and motor nuclei neurons. A 16 y old with TDP-43 cisternal levels of 1030 pg/mL exhibited TDP-43 pathology and all 15 MMC autopsy cases exhibited AD and PD hallmarks. Overlapping TDP-43, AD and PD pathologies start in childhood in urbanites with high exposures to PM2.5 and UFPM. Early, sustained exposures to PM air pollution represent a high risk for developing brains and MMC UFPM emissions sources ought to be clearly identified, regulated, monitored and controlled. Prevention of deadly neurologic diseases associated with air pollution ought to be a public health priority and preventive medicine is key.

Environmentally Toxic Solid Nanoparticles in Noradrenergic and Dopaminergic Nuclei and Cerebellum of Metropolitan Mexico City Children and Young Adults with Neural Quadruple Misfolded Protein Pathologies and High Exposures to Nano Particulate Matter

Quadruple aberrant hyperphosphorylated tau, beta-amyloid, α-synuclein and TDP-43 neuropathology and metal solid nanoparticles (NPs) are documented in the brains of children and young adults exposed to Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) pollution. We investigated environmental NPs reaching noradrenergic and dopaminergic nuclei and the cerebellum and their associated ultrastructural alterations. Here, we identify NPs in the locus coeruleus (LC), substantia nigrae (SN) and cerebellum by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) in 197 samples from 179 MMC residents, aged 25.9 ± 9.2 years and seven older adults aged 63 ± 14.5 years. Fe, Ti, Hg, W, Al and Zn spherical and acicular NPs were identified in the SN, LC and cerebellar neural and vascular mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, neuromelanin, heterochromatin and nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) along with early and progressive neurovascular damage and cerebellar endothelial erythrophagocytosis. Strikingly, FeNPs 4 ± 1 nm and Hg NPs 8 ± 2 nm were seen predominantly in the LC and SN. Nanoparticles could serve as a common denominator for misfolded proteins and could play a role in altering and obstructing NPCs. The NPs/carbon monoxide correlation is potentially useful for evaluating early neurodegeneration risk in urbanites. Early life NP exposures pose high risk to brains for development of lethal neurologic outcomes. NP emissions sources ought to be clearly recognized, regulated, and monitored; future generations are at stake.

Environmental Nanoparticles Reach Human Fetal Brains

Anthropogenic ultrafine particulate matter (UFPM) and industrial and natural nanoparticles (NPs) are ubiquitous. Normal term, preeclamptic, and postconceptional weeks(PCW) 8–15 human placentas and brains from polluted Mexican cities were analyzed by TEM and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. We documented NPs in maternal erythrocytes, early syncytiotrophoblast, Hofbauer cells, and fetal endothelium (ECs). Fetal ECs exhibited caveolar NP activity and widespread erythroblast contact. Brain ECs displayed micropodial extensions reaching luminal NP-loaded erythroblasts. Neurons and primitive glia displayed nuclear, organelle, and cytoplasmic NPs in both singles and conglomerates. Nanoscale Fe, Ti, and Al alloys, Hg, Cu, Ca, Sn, and Si were detected in placentas and fetal brains. Preeclamptic fetal blood NP vesicles are prospective neonate UFPM exposure biomarkers. NPs are reaching brain tissues at the early developmental PCW 8–15 stage, and NPs in maternal and fetal placental tissue compartments strongly suggests the placental barrier is not limiting the access of environmental NPs. Erythroblasts are the main early NP carriers to fetal tissues. The passage of UFPM/NPs from mothers to fetuses is documented and fingerprinting placental single particle composition could be useful for postnatal risk assessments. Fetal brain combustion and industrial NPs raise medical concerns about prenatal and postnatal health, including neurological and neurodegenerative lifelong consequences.

Nanoparticles With Affinity for α-Synuclein Sequester α-Synuclein to Form Toxic Aggregates in Neurons With Endolysosomal Impairment

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. It is characterized pathologically by the aggregation of α-synuclein (αS) in the form of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. A major challenge in PD therapy is poor efficiency of drug delivery to the brain due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB). For this reason, nanomaterials, with significant advantages in drug delivery, have gained attention. On the other hand, recent studies have shown that nanoparticles can promote αS aggregation in salt solution. Therefore, we tested if nanoparticles could have the same effect in cell models. We found that nanoparticle can induce cells to form αS inclusions as shown in immunocytochemistry, and detergent-resistant αS aggregates as shown in biochemical analysis; and nanoparticles of smaller size can induce more αS inclusions. Moreover, the induction of αS inclusions is in part dependent on endolysosomal impairment and the affinity of αS to nanoparticles. More importantly, we found that the abnormally high level of endogenous lysosomotropic biomolecules (e.g., sphingosine), due to impairing the integrity of endolysosomes could be a determinant factor for the susceptibility of cells to nanoparticle-induced αS aggregation; and deletion of GBA1 gene to increase the level of intracellular sphingosine can render cultured cells more susceptible to the formation of αS inclusions in response to nanoparticle treatment. Ultrastructural examination of nanoparticle-treated cells revealed that the induced inclusions contained αS-immunopositive membranous structures, which were also observed in inclusions seeded by αS fibrils. These results suggest caution in the use of nanoparticles in PD therapy. Moreover, this study further supports the role of endolysosomal impairment in PD pathogenesis and suggests a possible mechanism underlying the formation of membrane-associated αS pathology.

Parkinson's Disease: A Nanotheranostic Approach Targeting Alpha-Synuclein Aggregation

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders that is implicated in aging populations. As numerous developed nations are experiencing progressively aging populations today, there is a heightened propensity for the occurrence of PD cases. Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation has been considered to be the pivotal mechanism leading to PD pathogenesis. Thus, early diagnostic and therapeutic strategies targeting the misfolded α-syn protein can potentially improve the prognosis of PD. With rapid advancements in nanotechnology in the last decade, effective solutions to various neurodegenerative and oncological diseases have been suggested. This review will explore the current innovations in nanotechnology that target the α-syn aggregation pathway, and reinstate the promise they hold as effective early diagnostic and therapeutic solutions to PD.

Etching of AuNPs Through Superoxide Radical Dismutation by Cu-Zn Superoxide Dismutase Resulted in Remarkable Changes of its Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance

BACKGROUND

Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are categorized as antioxidant enzymes that are involved in many processes such as stress signalling responses and cell protection against free radical species. The primary function of SOD is the removal of produced radical species like superoxide ions in different physiological processes. There are various isozymes of SODs which are classified according to the metal cofactor in their active sites into four general types of Fe-SOD, Mn-SOD, Cu/Zn-SOD and Ni-SOD. Among metal nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are useful for biological purposes as sensing probe for determining critical analysis based on surface plasmon resonance and colorimetric method. In this study, the human Cu-Zn SOD expressed, purified, and its interaction with AuNPs based on a new colorimetric method was investigated.

OBJECTIVES

In this approach, a colorimetric detection method for SOD activity was developed based on the carboxylic stabilized AuNPs.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Ni-NTA Sepharose affinity column was performed for the purification process of enzyme. Following SOD purification, the enzyme activity in presence of AuNPs due to the possible etching in the presence of free radicals which are produced by riboflavin, methionine, Na₂CO₃ and potassium phosphate buffer, have been performed. In addition, Fluorescence spectroscopy analysis toward SOD and gold nanoparticle were performed.

RESULTS

Superoxide radicals generated from the enzymatic reaction would preferentially etch AuNPs and resulted in remarkable changes of localized surface plasmon resonance of AuNPs, which is reduced in the presence of SOD. Under the optimized experimental conditions assay (pH~7.8 and 25 ˚C), better selectivity and sensitivity toward SOD activity was shown.

CONCLUSIONS

In this context, an indirect new colorimetric method for determining of SOD activity based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) was evaluated. According to the presented result, it may be concluded that by scavenging of free superoxide radicals in the presence of SOD, the amount of AuNP absorbance can be replenished.

Emerging Nanotechnology for Treatment of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease

The prevalence of the two most common neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's Disease (AD), are expected to rise alongside the progressive aging of society. Both PD and AD are classified as proteinopathies with misfolded proteins α-synuclein, amyloid-β, and tau. Emerging evidence suggests that these misfolded aggregates are prion-like proteins that induce pathological cell-to-cell spreading, which is a major driver in pathogenesis. Additional factors that can further affect pathology spreading include oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, inflammation, and cell death. Nanomaterials present advantages over traditional chemical or biological therapeutic approaches at targeting these specific mechanisms. They can have intrinsic properties that lead to a decrease in oxidative stress or an ability to bind and disaggregate fibrils. Additionally, nanomaterials enhance transportation across the blood-brain barrier, are easily functionalized, increase drug half-lives, protect cargo from immune detection, and provide a physical structure that can support cell growth. This review highlights emergent nanomaterials with these advantages that target oxidative stress, the fibrillization process, inflammation, and aid in regenerative medicine for both PD and AD.

Green Synthesis of Highly Dispersed Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Supported on Silica Gel Matrix by Daphne oleoides Extract and their Antibacterial Activity

Background:

ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) are one of the most popular metal oxide nanoparticles, which exhibit significant antibacterial properties against various pathogens. Among nanoparticle synthesis methods, the green synthesis using plant extract is considered as an eco-friendly and cost-effective method for ZnO-NPs production, compared to the chemical procedures.

Background:

This study aimed to evaluate the green synthesis of ZnO-NPs loaded on silica gel matrix (ZnO/SG nanocomposite) by using methanol leaf extract of Daphne oleoides as a new extract and a cost-effective method. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of the synthesized structure is evaluated against some pathogenic bacteria and the results are compared with unsupported ZnO-NPs.

Materials and Methods:

For ZnO/SG nanocomposite synthesis, a solution of Zn (NO₃)₂ was stirred with silica gel. Then the Daphne oleoides extract was added and stirred continuously until white precipitate was formed. The precipitate was heated at 200 ˚C for calcination, and ZnO/SG nanocomposite was obtained. The phytochemical constituents of leaf extract were then analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Afterwards, the structure of ZnO-NPs on SiO₂ matrix (ZnO/SG nanocomposite) was characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Surface area measurement was also determined by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) techniques. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of ZnO/SG nanocomposites against pathogenic bacteria was evaluated using agar-based disk diffusion method standardized by clinical and laboratory guidelines.

Results:

The leaf extract of Daphne oleoides encompassed five major polyphenolic components. The results of the nanocomposite structure showed that ZnO-NPs with an average particle size of 38 nm were obtained and stabilized on the silica gel matrix. The BET surface area measurement of ZnO/SG nanocomposite was compared with unsupported ZnO-NPs, and the results indicated that the surface area of ZnO/SG nanocomposite was increased. Furthermore, the structure showed more powerful antibacterial activity against pathogens than unsupported ZnO-NPs.

Conclusions:

Green synthesis of ZnO-NPs supported on the silica gel matrix with the leaf extract of Daphne oleoides is a benign and effective procedure for ZnO/SG nanocomposite synthesis. Embedding ZnO-NPs in silica gel matrix prevents the agglomeration of nanoparticles and prepare homodispersed nanoparticles. This structure revealed great antibacterial activity against many pathogens.

The Antiaggregative and Antiamyloidogenic Properties of Nanoparticles: A Promising Tool for the Treatment and Diagnostics of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Due to the progressive aging of the society, the prevalence and socioeconomic burden of neurodegenerative diseases are predicted to rise. The most common neurodegenerative disorders nowadays, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, can be classified as proteinopathies. They can be either synucleinopathies, amyloidopathies, tauopathies, or TDP-43-related proteinopathies; thus, nanoparticles with a potential ability to inhibit pathological protein aggregation and/or degrade already existing aggregates can be a promising approach in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. As it turns out, nanoparticles can be a double-edged sword; they can either promote or inhibit protein aggregation, depending on coating, shape, size, surface charge, and concentration. In this review, we aim to emphasize the need of a breakthrough in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders and draw attention to nanomaterials, as they can also serve as a diagnostic tool for protein aggregates or can be used in a high-throughput screening for novel antiaggregative compounds.

Analyzing nanoparticle-induced neurotoxicity: A bibliometric analysis

BACKGROUND

In recent years, nanoparticles have been widely used in many fields, ranging from cosmetics, agriculture, environment, and biomedical areas. The increasing use of nanoproducts induces a potential increasing exposure to human body, and then, unknown pathological consequences could increase.

METHODS

The database was searched from 2008 to 2018 by the Web of Science Core Collection. The bibliometric methods, CiteSpace and HistCite, were used for analysis and visualization of the data.

RESULTS

The 2932 publications were analyzed and the annual publications grew from 78 to 512 in a decade. The United States and China mainly contribute to this research area, which accounted for 29.5% and 22.9%, respectively. PLoS One, Scientific Reports, and Nanoscale were the three journals that published the most articles. Keyword analysis indicated that the major research direction was the mechanisms of nanoneurotoxicity, which included oxidative stress, inflammation, astrocyte activation, and the fibrillation of amyloid β protein.

CONCLUSION

This bibliometric study revealed that nanoneurotoxicity was still a research hot topic and could be a promising area of research in the next few years. Nanoparticles play a role in neurodegenerative diseases by inducing reactive oxygen species production, inflammation, alterations of gene expression, and signal pathways.

Combustion and friction-derived nanoparticles and industrial-sourced nanoparticles: The culprit of Alzheimer and Parkinson's diseases

Redox-active, strongly magnetic, combustion and friction-derived nanoparticles (CFDNPs) are abundant in particulate matter air pollution. Urban children and young adults with Alzheimer disease Continuum have higher numbers of brain CFDNPs versus clean air controls. CFDNPs surface charge, dynamic magnetic susceptibility, iron content and redox activity contribute to ROS generation, neurovascular unit (NVU), mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) damage, and are catalysts for protein misfolding, aggregation and fibrillation. CFDNPs respond to external magnetic fields and are involved in cell damage by agglomeration/clustering, magnetic rotation and/or hyperthermia. This review focus in the interaction of CFDNPs, nanomedicine and industrial NPs with biological systems and the impact of portals of entry, particle sizes, surface charge, biomolecular corona, biodistribution, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular toxicity, anterograde and retrograde axonal transport, brain dysfunction and pathology. NPs toxicity information come from researchers synthetizing particles and improving their performance for drug delivery, drug targeting, magnetic resonance imaging and heat mediators for cancer therapy. Critical information includes how these NPs overcome all barriers, the NPs protein corona changes as they cross the NVU and the complexity of NPs interaction with soluble proteins and key organelles. Oxidative, ER and mitochondrial stress, and a faulty complex protein quality control are at the core of Alzheimer and Parkinson's diseases and NPs mechanisms of action and toxicity are strong candidates for early development and progression of both fatal diseases. Nanoparticle exposure regardless of sources carries a high risk for the developing brain homeostasis and ought to be included in the AD and PD research framework.

Cerium oxide NPs mitigate the amyloid formation of α-synuclein and associated cytotoxicity

Aim

Among therapeutic proposals for amyloid-associated disorders, special attention has been given to the exploitation of nanoparticles (NPs) as promising agents against aggregation.

Methods

In this paper, the inhibitory effect of cerium oxide (CeO₂) NPs against α-synuclein (α-syn) amyloid formation was explored by different methods such as Thioflavin T (ThT) and 8-anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid (ANS) fluorescence spectroscopy, Congo red adsorption assay, circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and bioinformatical approaches. Also, the cytotoxicity of α-syn amyloid either alone or with CeO₂ NPs against neuron-like cells (SH-SY5Y) was examined using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), flow cytometry, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (Bax and Bcl-2 gene expression) assays.

Results

ThT and ANS fluorescence assays indicated that CeO₂ NPs inhibit the formation of aggregated species and hydrophobic patches of α-syn in amyloidogenic conditions, respectively. Congo red and CD assays demonstrated that CeO₂ NPs reduce the formation of amyloid species and β-sheets structures of α-syn molecules, respectively. TEM investigation also confirmed that CeO₂ NPs limited the formation of well-defined fibrillary structures of α-syn molecules. Molecular docking and dynamic studies revealed that CeO₂ NPs could bind with different affinities to α-syn monomer and amyloid species and fibrillar structure of α-syn is disaggregated in the presence of CeO₂ NPs. Moreover, cellular assays depicted that CeO₂ NPs mitigate the cell mortality, apoptosis, and the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 gene expression associated with α-syn amyloids.

Conclusion

It may be concluded that CeO₂ NPs can be used as therapeutic agents to reduce the aggregation of proteins and mitigate the occurrence of neurodegenerative diseases.