Organized Chaos in Late Specialization Team Sports: Weekly Training Loads of Elite Adolescent Rugby Union Players

A Longitudinal Mixed Methods Case Study Investigation of the Academic, Athletic, Psychosocial and Psychological Impacts of Being a Sport School Student Athlete

BACKGROUND

Sport schools are popular environments for simultaneously delivering education and sport to young people. Previous research suggests sport school involvement to have impact (i.e. the positive/negative, intended/unintended and long/short-term outcomes, results and effects) on student athlete's holistic (i.e. academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological) development. However, previous research is limited by (1) cross-sectional methods, (2) limited multidimensional assessments, (3) lack of consideration for athlete characteristics (e.g. sex) and (4) failure to evaluate how sport school features affect student-athlete impacts.

OBJECTIVES

The study, using a mixed methods case study approach, aims to (1) longitudinally evaluate the impact of sport school involvement on the holistic development of student athletes, (2) evaluate the impact on holistic development by student-athlete characteristics and (3) explore the features and processes of the sport-school programme that drive/facilitate holistic impacts.

METHODS

A longitudinal mixed methods design was employed across one full academic school year (33 weeks). Six data-collection methods (i.e. online questionnaire, physical fitness testing battery, academic assessment grades, log diaries, field notes/observation and timeline diagram/illustration) were used to assess the academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological impacts for 72 student athletes from one sport school in the United Kingdom (UK).

RESULTS

Student athletes developed positive long-term holistic overall impacts (i.e. academically, athletically and personally), including maintaining stable and relatively high levels of sport confidence, academic motivation, general recovery, life skills, resilience and friends, family and free time scores. Despite positive impacts, juggling academic and sport workload posed challenges for student athletes, having the potential to lead to negative holistic impacts (e.g. fatigue, stress and injury). Positive and negative impacts were linked to many potential features and processes of the sport school (e.g. academic and athletic support services versus insufficient training load build-up, communication, coordination, flexibility and planning). Furthermore, when considering student-athlete characteristics, females had lower sport confidence, higher general stress and body image concerns and less general recovery than males and student athletes who played sport outside the school had lower general recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

This mixed method, longitudinal study demonstrated sport school involvement resulted in many positive academic (e.g. good grades), athletic (e.g. fitness development), psychosocial (e.g. enhanced confidence) and psychological (e.g. improved resilience) impacts attributed to the academic and athletic support services provided. However, juggling heavy academic and athletic workloads posed challenges leading to negative impacts including fatigue, pressure, stress and injury. Furthermore, holistic impacts may be sex dependent and further support may be required for female student athletes in sport school environments. Overall, these findings demonstrate the complex nature of combining education and sport commitments and how sport schools should manage, monitor and evaluate the features of their programme to maximise the holistic impacts of sport-school student athletes.

Anthropometric and physical characteristics in U16, U18 and U20 elite French youth rugby union players

The aims of this study in elite youth French players were to 1) describe the anthropometric and physical characteristics of international and non-international players from U16 to U20, and 2) compare these characteristics across age categories and playing standard (international or non-international). Altogether, 1423 players from the French Rugby Federation's academies participated in a physical testing battery, part of its national young player development pathway. From seasons 2010 to 2020, players were assessed for anthropometric (body mass and height), off-field (bench press; isometric squat, vertical jump) and on-field physical characteristics (aerobic capacity: maximal aerobic speed [MAS]; speed: 10-m, 50-m sprint). A 2-way mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare physical characteristics across age categories and playing standards. Two separate models were used for forwards and backs. A main statistical effect was observed for age category and playing standard (range p < 0.05 -p < 0.001). Pair-wise category comparisons showed that older players were generally taller, heavier, stronger, faster and demonstrated better aerobic qualities than younger peers. The same results were observed for INT compared with NI players while INT forwards were also taller and heavier than NI peers (range p < 0.01 -p < 0.001). Findings revealed a clear progression in anthropometric characteristics and physical qualities throughout the age development pathway in elite young French rugby players. Findings also identified certain physical qualities (strength, power and speed) necessary at younger levels to achieve international standard.

What is it like to be a sport school student-athlete? A mixed method evaluation of holistic impacts and experiences

Assessing the holistic impact of student-athletes within sport schools is important due to the increasing popularity of sport school programmes, the likelihood that most youth athletes do not ultimately succeed in their sport and the multiple and wide ranging positive and negative impacts associated with intensified youth sport. Therefore, this study, using a mixed method design, aimed to evaluate the 'in-time' holistic impacts and experiences of being a sport school student-athlete. Five data collection methods (i.e., online questionnaire, physical fitness testing battery, academic assessments grades, injury data and log diaries) were used to assess athletic, academic, psychological and psychosocial holistic impacts and experiences of 83 student-athletes from one sport school in the United Kingdom (UK). Due to the mixed method approach, a triangulation design was used whereby quantitative and qualitative data were firstly analysed separately and then integrated and presented together. Overall, the findings demonstrated there were a multitude of positive impacts and experiences associated with being a sport school student-athlete. These included: high average academic attainment, satisfaction with academic support, sport competence, all-round sport development, higher general and sport specific recovery than stress, inter- and intra-personal development, social support, positive peer and parent relationships and dual career motivation. However, impacts and experiences of concern were also apparent including: participation in sport external to the school context, difficulty balancing education and sport, academic lessons missed, injury, fatigue, lack of free time, extra-curricular and social sacrifice, social intensity and body image concerns. Large inter-individual variability was demonstrated across all data analyses highlighting the variable nature of the impacts and experiences of being a sports school student-athlete. Overall, sport schools have the potential to promote many positive holistic impacts, however stakeholders need to be aware, monitor and mitigate the potential negative impacts. Flexible development programmes, individualised support and student-athlete monitoring are essential features required of sport schools to ensure healthy and holistic development for all sport school student-athletes.

Training effects of set- and repetition-interval rest time on recumbent-boxing exercise: Could virtual reality improve further?

This study examined the influence of set-interval and repetition-interval rest time of virtual reality (VR) boxing game in supine-lying posture. Fifty healthy middle-aged adults were randomly assigned into VR and non-VR groups to perform six different exercise protocols with varying set-interval and repetition-interval rest times (S0R0, S0R1/3, S0R2/3, S40R0, S40R1/3, and S40R2/3). Analysis on the non-VR group showed significant differences between exercise protocols for average heart rate (p < 0.001), maximum ventilation volume (p < 0.001), respiratory quotient (p < 0.001), oxygen pulse (p < 0.001), and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) (p = 0.003). VR appeared to have no further improvement on physical training effects in middle-aged adults, while the participants reported negative experience that might be associated with the over-exertion. Future study might need to explore game design elements that can accommodate high-exertion exercises.

Methods of Monitoring Internal and External Loads and Their Relationships with Physical Qualities, Injury, or Illness in Adolescent Athletes: A Systematic Review and Best-Evidence Synthesis

BACKGROUND

With the increasing professionalisation of youth sports, training load monitoring is increasingly common in adolescent athletes. However, the research examining the relationship between training load and changes in physical qualities, injury, or illness in adolescent athletes is yet to be synthesised in a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review was to systematically examine the research assessing internal and external methods of monitoring training load and physical qualities, injury, or illness in adolescent athletes.

METHODS

Systematic searches of SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, CINAHL and SCOPUS were undertaken from the earliest possible records to March 2022. Search terms included synonyms relevant to adolescents, athletes, physical qualities, injury, or illness. To be eligible for inclusion, articles were required to (1) be original research articles; (2) be published in a peer-reviewed journal; (3) include participants aged between 10 and 19 years and participating in competitive sport; (4) report a statistical relationship between a measure of internal and/or external load and physical qualities, injury or illness. Articles were screened and assessed for methodological quality. A best-evidence synthesis was conducted to identify trends in the relationships reported.

RESULTS

The electronic search yielded 4125 articles. Following screening and a review of references, 59 articles were included. The most commonly reported load monitoring tools were session ratings of perceived exertion (n = 29) and training duration (n = 22). Results of the best-evidence synthesis identified moderate evidence of positive relationships between resistance training volume load and improvement in strength, and between throw count and injury. However, evidence for other relationships between training load and change in physical qualities, injury, or illness were limited or inconsistent.

CONCLUSIONS

Practitioners should consider monitoring resistance training volume load for strength training. Additionally, where appropriate, monitoring throw counts may be useful in identifying injury risk. However, given the lack of clear relationships between singular measures of training load with physical qualities, injury, or illness, researchers should consider multivariate methods of analysing training load, as well as factors that may mediate the load-response relationship, such as maturation.

Optimising long-term athletic development: An investigation of practitioners' knowledge, adherence, practices and challenges

Long-term athletic development practices have been recommended for the past two decades. However, limited research exists exploring the knowledge and skills required by practitioners to optimise long-term athletic development. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, adherence, practices, and challenges of practitioners responsible for delivering long-term athletic development. A mixed methods survey was completed by 236 practitioners (e.g., sport coaches, physical education teachers) consisting of four parts; 1) demographics, 2) knowledge, 3) adherence, and 4) practices and challenges. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed by Friedman’s analysis of variance and thematic analyses, respectively. Quantitative findings showed practitioners 1) recognised their responsibility for delivering long-term athletic development, 2) have a familiarity with existing developmental models, and 3) had high adherence, focused upon health and wellbeing, to delivering long-term athletic development. However, practices associated with growth and maturity, monitoring and assessment, and the systematic progression and individualisation of training had lower adherence. Qualitative analysis indicated that practitioner’s perceived definitions of athleticism and long-term athletic development were inconsistent, especially according to the psychological components (i.e., confidence). Practitioners’ descriptions of their long-term athletic development practices identified two higher order themes; 1) goals, in which long-term athletic development “is for life” and the importance of “an individual centered journey” highlighted as sub-themes; and 2) realities of delivering long-term athletic development, whereby variety in programme delivery, monitoring development and practical challenges were noted as key priorities. Eight practical challenges were identified including governance and priorities, resources, education, early specialization, high training volumes, staff communication, parents and youth motivation. This mixed method survey highlighted a multitude of knowledge, adherence, practices and challenges towards long-term athletic development. These novel findings can help inform policy to optimise long-term athletic development and to support the complex problem of developing a healthier, fitter and more physically active youth population.

Tracking Systems in Team Sports: A Narrative Review of Applications of the Data and Sport Specific Analysis

Seeking to obtain a competitive advantage and manage the risk of injury, team sport organisations are investing in tracking systems that can quantify training and competition characteristics. It is expected that such information can support objective decision-making for the prescription and manipulation of training load. This narrative review aims to summarise, and critically evaluate, different tracking systems and their use within team sports. The selection of systems should be dependent upon the context of the sport and needs careful consideration by practitioners. The selection of metrics requires a critical process to be able to describe, plan, monitor and evaluate training and competition characteristics of each sport. An emerging consideration for tracking systems data is the selection of suitable time analysis, such as temporal durations, peak demands or time series segmentation, whose best use depends on the temporal characteristics of the sport. Finally, examples of characteristics and the application of tracking data across seven popular team sports are presented. Practitioners working in specific team sports are advised to follow a critical thinking process, with a healthy dose of scepticism and awareness of appropriate theoretical frameworks, where possible, when creating new or selecting an existing metric to profile team sport athletes.

The Frequency and Intensity of Representative and Nonrepresentative Late Adolescent Team-Sport Athletes' Training Schedules

ABSTRACT

Scantlebury, S, Till, K, Sawczuk, T, Dalton-Barron, N, Phibbs, P, and Jones, B. The frequency and intensity of representative and nonrepresentative late adolescent team-sport athletes' training schedules. J Strength Cond Res 35(12): 3400-3406, 2021-This study aimed to identify and compare the training frequency and intensity (via session rating of perceived exertion load [sRPE load]) of representative and nonrepresentative late adolescent athletes. Thirty-six team sport athletes completed a web-based questionnaire daily over an 8-month period, reporting their training/match activities from the previous day. Athletes were categorized as representative (academy/county/international) or nonrepresentative (club/school) depending on the highest level of their sport they participated. Mean weekly frequencies and sRPE load of different training/match activities were quantified for each athlete across 5 school terms. Mann-Whitney U tests established the significance of differences and effect sizes between playing standards for mean weekly frequencies and mean sRPE load. Within-athlete weekly sRPE loads were highly variable for both playing standards; however, representative level athletes participated in significantly more activity outside of school compared with nonrepresentative athletes during November-December (effect size; 0.43-club technical training; 0.36-club matches), January-February (effect size; 0.78-club technical training; 0.75-club matches), and February-March (effect size; 0.63-club technical training; 0.44-club matches). Therefore, club and school coaches must ensure that all elements of representative athletes training schedules are coordinated and flexible to promote positive adaptions to training such as skill and physical development and prevent maladaptive responses such as overuse injury and nonfunctional overreaching. A cooperative and malleable training schedule between club/school coaches and the athlete will allow the athlete to perform on multiple fronts while also being able to meet the demands of additional stressors such as schoolwork.

The Use of Global Positioning and Accelerometer Systems in Age-Grade and Senior Rugby Union: A Systematic Review

Background

Global positioning systems (GPS) imbedded with accelerometer systems (AS) are used in rugby union (RU) to collect information on absolute and relative distances, distances in different speed zones, high-speed running (HSR) distances, repeated high-intensity efforts (RHIE) and collisions and impacts. This information can be used to monitor match play which can then be used to plan training sessions. The objective of this review was to conduct a systematic review of studies which have reported the use of GPS and AS.

Methods

A systematic review of the use of GPS and AS in both age-grade and senior rugby was conducted. The authors systematically searched electronic databases from January 2010 until March 2020. Keywords included rugby union, GPS, global position* and microtechnology.

Results

A total of 51 studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in this review. There was a total of 34 studies utilising GPS and AS in senior RU players (mean ± SD; age 26.2 ± 1.9 years; height 185.7 ± 2.6 cm; mass 101.3 ± 4.2 kg) and 17 studies in age-grade RU players (mean ± SD; age 17.6 ± 1.5 years; height 182.1 ± 3.3 cm; mass 87.1 ± 8.6 kg). The results of this review highlighted that there are differences between backs and forwards and within these positions in these groups during both match play and training sessions. The backs covered greater total absolute, relative and HSR distance compared to forwards. Forwards are involved in more collisions and impacts than backs. When investigating the most intense periods of match play, studies in this review highlighted that the demands during these periods outweigh the average demands of the game. It was proposed that a rolling average over different time epochs is the best way to assess this and ensure that the most intense periods of play are assessed and monitored.

Conclusions

The information highlighted in this review can be used to help coaches assess performances in match play, allow them to plan appropriate training sessions and monitor training load.

Maturity-associated considerations for training load, injury risk, and physical performance in youth soccer: One size does not fit all

Biological maturation can be defined as the timing and tempo of progress to achieving a mature state. The estimation of age of peak height velocity (PHV) or percentage of final estimated adult stature attainment (%EASA) is typically used to inform the training process in young athletes. In youth soccer, maturity-related changes in anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics are diverse among individuals, particularly around PHV. During this time, players are also at an increased risk of sustaining an overuse or growth-related injury. As a result, the implementation of training interventions can be challenging. The purpose of this review was to (1) highlight and discuss many of the methods that can be used to estimate maturation in the applied setting and (2) discuss the implications of manipulating training load around PHV on physical development and injury risk. We have provided key stakeholders with a practical online tool for estimating player maturation status (Supplementary Maturity Estimation Tools). Whilst estimating maturity using predictive equations is useful in guiding the training process, practitioners should be aware of its limitations. To increase the accuracy and usefulness of data, it is also vital that sports scientists implement reliable testing protocols at predetermined time-points.

A systematic review of small sided games within rugby: Acute and chronic effects of constraints manipulation

Small-sided games is a commonly used training method to develop technical, tactical and physical qualities concurrently. However, a review of small-sided games in rugby football codes (e.g. rugby union, rugby league) is not available. This systematic review aims to investigate the acute responses and chronic adaptations of small-sided games within rugby football codes considering the constraints applied. Four electronical databases were systematically searched until August 2020. Acute and chronic studies investigating rugby football codes small-sided games, with healthy amateur and professional athletes were included. Twenty studies were eventually included: 4 acute and 1 chronic in rugby union, 13 acute and 2 chronic in rugby league. Acute studies investigated task and individual constraints. Chronic studies showed that small-sided games would be an effective training method to improve physical performance. Current research in rugby football codes is heavily biased towards investigating how manipulating constraints can affect the physical characteristics of small-sided games, with limited literature investigating the effect on technical skills, and no studies investigating tactical behaviour. Future research is needed to evidence the effects of constraint manipulation on technical and tactical behaviour of rugby football players in small-sided games, in addition to physical characteristics.

The Validity and Reliability of Commercially Available Resistance Training Monitoring Devices: A Systematic Review

Background

Monitoring resistance training has a range of unique difficulties due to differences in physical characteristics and capacity between athletes, and the indoor environment in which it often occurs. Traditionally, methods such as volume load have been used, but these have inherent flaws. In recent times, numerous portable and affordable devices have been made available that purport to accurately and reliably measure kinetic and kinematic outputs, potentially offering practitioners a means of measuring resistance training loads with confidence. However, a thorough and systematic review of the literature describing the reliability and validity of these devices has yet to be undertaken, which may lead to uncertainty from practitioners on the utility of these devices.

Objective

A systematic review of studies that investigate the validity and/or reliability of commercially available devices that quantify kinetic and kinematic outputs during resistance training.

Methods

Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search of SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Medline was performed; studies included were (1) original research investigations; (2) full-text articles written in English; (3) published in a peer-reviewed academic journal; and (4) assessed the validity and/or reliability of commercially available portable devices that quantify resistance training exercises.

Results

A total of 129 studies were retrieved, of which 47 were duplicates. The titles and abstracts of 82 studies were screened and the full text of 40 manuscripts were assessed. A total of 31 studies met the inclusion criteria. Additional 13 studies, identified via reference list assessment, were included. Therefore, a total of 44 studies were included in this review.

Conclusion

Most of the studies within this review did not utilise a gold-standard criterion measure when assessing validity. This has likely led to under or overreporting of error for certain devices. Furthermore, studies that have quantified intra-device reliability have often failed to distinguish between technological and biological variability which has likely altered the true precision of each device. However, it appears linear transducers which have greater accuracy and reliability compared to other forms of device. Future research should endeavour to utilise gold-standard criterion measures across a broader range of exercises (including weightlifting movements) and relative loads.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s40279-020-01382-w) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Reliability and Validity of Integrated External and Internal Load Ratios as Measures of Fitness in Academy Rugby Union Players

Taylor, RJ, Sanders, D, Myers, T, and Akubat, I. Reliability and validity of integrated external and internal load ratios as measures of fitness in academy rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 34(6): 1723-1730, 2020-This study aimed to assess the relationships between integrated ratios of external and internal load measures and aerobic fitness in 3 different training exercise protocols. Twelve academy rugby union players (aged; 17.6 ± 0.44 years, height; 179.4 ± 6.3 cm, body mass 83.3 ± 9.7 kg) performed a lactate threshold/V[Combining Dot Above]O2max test (LT/V[Combining Dot Above]O2max) followed by 3 exercise protocols; 760 m continuous shuttle running (20 m shuttle run at 9 km·h), sprint interval training (SIT: 6 × 6 seconds sprint with 54 seconds recovery), and a small-sided game (SSG: 6 vs. 6, 10 minutes on a 39 × 51 m pitch) on 2 occasions. A LT/V[Combining Dot Above]O2max test was used to determine velocity at lactate threshold (vLT) and at the onset of blood lactate accumulation (vOBLA), maximal oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2max) and the heart rate-blood lactate profile for the calculation of internal load (individualized training impulse or iTRIMP). The total distance (TD), PlayerLoad, metabolic power (MP), high-speed distance >15 km·h (HSD), very high-speed distance >18 km·h (VHSD) and individualized high-speed distance based on each player's vOBLA (iHSD) for the 3 exercise protocols were measured using Micro Electro Mechanical Systems/Global Positioning System technology. Bayesian analysis was used to assess the ratios validity and reliability. Ratios demonstrated large-to-very large associations with vOBLA (Rho = 0.64-0.76), vLT (Rho = 0.63-0.71). Reliability of the ratios ranged from 7.06 to 36.28% (coefficient of variation [CV]%). The results suggest that integrated load ratios from the SIT and SSG protocols provide a measure which is reliable with large-to-very large associations to submaximal aerobic fitness in rugby union.

Accelerometry as a method for external workload monitoring in invasion team sports. A systematic review

Accelerometry is a recent method used to quantify workload in team sports. A rapidly increasing number of studies supports the practical implementation of accelerometry monitoring to regulate and optimize training schemes. Therefore, the purposes of this study were: (1) to reflect the current state of knowledge about accelerometry as a method of workload monitoring in invasion team sports according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and (2) to conclude recommendations for application and scientific investigations. The Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for relevant published studies according to the following keywords: "accelerometry" or "accelerometer" or "microtechnology" or "inertial devices", and "load" or "workload", and "sport". Of the 1383 studies initially identified, 118 were selected for a full review. The main results indicate that the most frequent findings were (i) devices' body location: scapulae; (b) devices brand: Catapult Sports; (iii) variables: PlayerLoadTM and its variations; (iv) sports: rugby, Australian football, soccer and basketball; (v) sex: male; (vi) competition level: professional and elite; and (vii) context: separate training or competition. A great number of variables and devices from various companies make the comparability between findings difficult; unification is required. Although the most common location is at scapulae because of its optimal signal reception for time-motion analysis, new methods for multi-location skills and locomotion assessment without losing tracking accuracy should be developed.

Influence of Weekly Workload on Physical, Biochemical and Psychological Characteristics in Professional Rugby Union Players Over a Competitive Season

Dubois, R, Lyons, M, Paillard, T, Maurelli, O, and Prioux, J. Influence of weekly workload on physical, biochemical and psychological characteristics in professional rugby union players over a competitive season. J Strength Cond Res 34(2): 527-545, 2020-This study aimed to (a) quantify the physical workload (P-WL) during training and games throughout the professional rugby season and (b) analyze the influence of the season period and weekly-WL, at short (acute) and moderate (chronic) terms, on physical, biochemical, and psychological responses during the season. Physiological (physical and biochemical) responses to P-WL were analyzed by examining changes in the individual Z score of the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (YYIRT), submaximal aerobic tests (5'/5'-test), strength tests, countermovement jump tests, blood sampling, and "recovery-stress" scores (RESTq) in 14 professional players (26.9 ± 1.9 years). Changes throughout the season were analyzed using a linear mixed model to identify changes in P-WL, whereas repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to analyze changes in physiological responses across the season. The relationship between P-WL and physiological responses was analyzed using Pearson's correlation coefficient (r). The results showed that the preseason period comprised the highest level of P-WL compared with all other blocks across the season (p < 0.001). The acute P-WL, acute competitive-WL, and number of impacts seemed to be the WL parameters, which most influenced the physiological responses (changes in testosterone [T], cortisol [C], T/C ratio, IGF-1/C ratio, strength, and RESTq index). The chronic P-WL, particularly conditioning-WL, induced positive changes in fitness characteristics (YYIRT and 5'/5'-test). Finally, this study provides information to players and coaches alike as to the influence of P-WL on as well as adaptations in physiological and psychological indices throughout a playing season. This information can greatly inform the training and preparation of future players in different levels.

Challenges and [Possible] Solutions to Optimizing Talent Identification and Development in Sport

The modern-day landscape of Olympic and Professional sport is arguably more competitive than ever. One consequence of this is the increased focus on identifying and developing early athletic talent. In this paper, we highlight key challenges associated with talent (athlete) identification and development and propose possible solutions that could be considered by research and practice. The first challenge focuses on clarifying the purposes of talent identification initiatives such as defining what talent is and how its meaning might evolve over time. Challenge two centers on ways to best identify, select and develop talent, including issues with different approaches to identification, the need to understand the impact of development and the need to have appropriate resourcing in the system to support continued development of knowledge. Finally, we discuss two challenges in relation to the 'healthiness' of talent identification and development. The first examines whether a talent identification and development system is 'healthy' for athletes while the second focuses on how sport stakeholders could discourage the apparent trend toward early specialization in youth sport settings. Whilst this paper discusses the research in relation to these challenges, we propose multiple possible solutions that researchers and practitioners could consider for optimizing their approach to talent identification and development. In summary, talent is a complex and largely misunderstood phenomenon lacking robust research evidence, and given concerns that it is potentially unhealthy, talent identification and selection at younger ages is not recommended.

Are internal load measures associated with injuries in male adolescent Gaelic football players?

This study aimed to examine internal loads in male adolescent Gaelic footballers and their association with musculoskeletal injury. Written training diaries were completed by 97 male adolescent Gaelic footballers weekly and injuries, defined as any injury sustained during training or competition causing restricted performance or time lost from play, were assessed by a Certified Athletic Therapist. Daily load was determined for each player (session rating of perceived exertion by session duration) and summed to give weekly load. Univariate and multiple logistic regressions were conducted to determine the association with injury. Twenty-two injuries were recorded with match injuries significantly more common than training injuries. Periodic variations in weekly load and injuries were evident throughout the season. Univariate analysis identified weekly load (OR = 2.75; 95%CI = 1.00-7.59), monotony (OR = 4.17; 95%CI = 1.48-11.72) and absolute change in load (OR = 3.27; 95%CI = 1.15-9.32) greater than the team average were significant injury risk factors. Multiple logistic regression with 2-weekly and 3-weekly cumulative loads, absolute change, monotony, strain, ACWR and age as independent variables identified internal load measures (monotony, strain and absolute change) were associated with injury with high specificity (96.0%) but low sensitivity (25.0%). The findings highlight the need to monitor team and individual loads to avoid sudden week-to-week changes or excessive weekly loads. Open communication between players, parents, coaches and sports medicine clinicians enables effective load monitoring that can reduce injury risk and may subsequently minimise dropout, improve team success and overall sport enjoyment and promote life-long sports participation.

Applied Sport Science for Male Age-Grade Rugby Union in England

Rugby union (RU) is a skill-collision team sport played at junior and senior levels worldwide. Within England, age-grade rugby governs the participation and talent development of youth players. The RU player development pathway has recently been questioned, regarding player performance and well-being, which sport science research can address. The purpose of this review was to summarise and critically appraise the literature in relation to the applied sport science of male age-grade RU players in England focussing upon (1) match-play characteristics, (2) training exposures, (3) physical qualities, (4) fatigue and recovery, (5) nutrition, (6) psychological challenges and development, and (7) injury. Current research evidence suggests that age, playing level and position influence the match-play characteristics of age-grade RU. Training exposures of players are described as 'organised chaos' due to the multiple environments and stakeholders involved in coordinating training schedules. Fatigue is apparent up to 72 h post match-play. Well-developed physical qualities are important for player development and injury risk reduction. The nutritional requirements are high due to the energetic costs of collisions. Concerns around the psychological characteristics have also been identified (e.g. perfectionism). Injury risk is an important consideration with prevention strategies available. This review highlights the important multi-disciplinary aspects of sport science for developing age-grade RU players for continued participation and player development. The review describes where some current practices may not be optimal, provides a framework to assist practitioners to effectively prepare age-grade players for the holistic demands of youth RU and considers areas for future research.

Early Sports Specialization in Elite Wrestlers

BACKGROUND

Sports specialization is becoming an increasingly common training strategy in young athletes. Very little research currently exists examining the occurrence of serious injury (>3 months off sport or loss of season) in elite-level wrestlers who specialize early (before age 12 years).

HYPOTHESIS

Wrestlers who specialize early will sustain more serious injuries than wrestlers who specialize at age 12 years or older.

STUDY DESIGN

Descriptive epidemiological study.

METHODS

We sent an anonymous online survey to a total of 312 elite-level wrestlers (National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletes and World/Olympic team members) containing questions documenting age of specialization and number of serious injuries sustained. The number of serious injuries both before and after starting college were compared between wrestlers specializing at <12 years old and ≥12 years old using an independent-samples t test. Respondents' opinions on the necessity of early specialization and their primary source of encouragement to specialize were also reported.

RESULTS

A total of 143 wrestlers completed the survey, for a total response rate of 46%. Thirty-six (25%) wrestlers specialized at <12 years old. The early specialization group sustained significantly more serious injuries than the late specialization group (1.14 vs 0.60; P = 0.035). Sixty-two (43%) believed early specialization was necessary to achieve elite-level status. The decision to specialize was encouraged primarily by the athlete (78/143; 55%), parents (37/143; 26%), and coaches (22/143; 15%).

CONCLUSION

Elite wrestlers who specialize prior to age 12 years sustain a greater number of serious injuries before starting college than those who specialize at or after the age of 12 years.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Athletes, coaches, and parents should consider the risk of injury before adopting a wrestling-specialized training strategy at a young age.

Training and match volume and injury in adolescents playing multiple contact team sports: A prospective cohort study

Training and competition loads have emerged as valuable injury risk factors but very few studies have explored injury outcomes in adolescent athletes. The aims of this study were to describe injuries and to explore the relationship between training and match load volumes and injury in adolescent athletes participating in multiple contact team sports. One hundred and three male youth rugby athletes aged 14-16 years from 8 rugby union teams were prospectively monitored during a season for weekly training and match volumes and injuries. The relationship between volume and injury was explored by comparing the weekly volume in the week prior to an injury vs weeks without injury. There were 83 time-loss injuries in 58 athletes (62%). Overall injury incidence was 18.5 per 1000 player-hours. Mean weekly injury prevalence was 27% (95% CI 25-30). Average weekly volume was 5.4 (2.2) hours comprising 1.4 (1) match hours and 4 (2.6) training hours. Compared with weeks without injury, weeks prior to an injury had higher match volumes (110 [57] min vs 83 [59] min, P < 0.001). Poisson regression demonstrated that match volume was a predictor of injury with an odds ratio of 1.41 (P = 0.001). The contribution of match volumes to injury risk and the relatively high injury burden in these athletes may be profound. Very high match volumes are unlikely to be in the best interests of young athletes and could be avoided with a systematic approach to load management and athlete development.

Bigger, stronger, faster, fitter: the differences in physical qualities of school and academy rugby union players

Limited research has compared the physical qualities of adolescent rugby union (RU) players across differing playing standards. This study therefore compared the physical qualities of academy and school Under-18 RU players. One-hundred and eighty-four (professional regional academy, n = 55 school, n = 129) male RU players underwent a physical testing battery to quantify height, body mass, strength (bench press and pull-up), speed (10, 20 and 40 m), 10 m momentum (calculated; 10 m velocity * body mass) and a proxy measure of aerobic fitness (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1; IRTL1). The practical significance of differences between playing levels were assessed using magnitude-based inferences. Academy players were taller (very likely small), heavier (likely moderate) and stronger (bench press possibly large; pull-up plus body mass likely small) than school players. Academy players were faster than school players over 20 and 40 m (possibly and likely small), although differences in 10 m speed were not apparent (possibly trivial). Academy players displayed greater 10 m momentum (likely moderate) and greater IRTL1 performance (likely small) than school players. These findings suggest that body size, strength, running momentum, 40 m speed and aerobic fitness contribute to a higher playing standard in adolescent rugby union.

Elite Junior Australian Football Players Experience Significantly Different Loads Across Levels of Competition and Training Modes

Lathlean, TJH, Gastin, PB, Newstead, S, and Finch, CF. Elite junior Australian football players experience significantly different loads across levels of competition and training modes. J Strength Cond Res 32(7): 2031-2038, 2018-Well-developed physical qualities such as high jumping ability, running endurance, acceleration, and speed can help aspiring junior elite Australian football (AF) players transition to the Australian Football League competition. To do so, players need to experience sufficient load to enhance their physical resilience without increasing their risk of negative outcomes in terms of impaired wellness or injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the differences in load for different levels of competition and training modes across one competitive season. Elite junior AF players (n = 562, aged 17.7 ± 0.3, range: 16-18 years) were recruited from 9 teams across the under-18 state league competition in Victoria. All players recorded their training and match intensities according to the session rating of perceived exertion method. Training sessions were categorized according to skills, strength, conditioning, and other activities, whereas matches were identified according to level of competition. The loads in U18 state league matches (656.7 ± 210.9 au) were significantly higher (p = 0.027) than those in school matches (643.3 ± 260.9 au) and those in U18 representative matches (617.2 ± 175.4). Players, who undertook more than one match per week, experienced significantly less load in subsequent matches (p < 0.001). Furthermore, U18 state league training sessions carried the most load when compared with other training modes. This article highlights that different combinations of training and match involvement affect overall player load, which may predispose players to negative outcomes such as impaired wellness or increased injury risk.

The effects of traditional, superset, and tri-set resistance training structures on perceived intensity and physiological responses

Purpose

Investigate the acute and short-term (i.e., 24 h) effects of traditional (TRAD), superset (SS), and tri-set (TRI) resistance training protocols on perceptions of intensity and physiological responses.

Methods

Fourteen male participants completed a familiarisation session and three resistance training protocols (i.e., TRAD, SS, and TRI) in a randomised-crossover design. Rating of perceived exertion, lactate concentration ([Lac]), creatine kinase concentration ([CK]), countermovement jump (CMJ), testosterone, and cortisol concentrations was measured pre, immediately, and 24-h post the resistance training sessions with magnitude-based inferences assessing changes/differences within/between protocols.

Results

TRI reported possible to almost certainly greater efficiency and rate of perceived exertion, although session perceived load was very likely lower. SS and TRI had very likely to almost certainly greater lactate responses during the protocols, with changes in [CK] being very likely and likely increased at 24 h, respectively. At 24-h post-training, CMJ variables in the TRAD protocol had returned to baseline; however, SS and TRI were still possibly to likely reduced. Possible increases in testosterone immediately post SS and TRI protocols were reported, with SS showing possible increases at 24-h post-training. TRAD and SS showed almost certain and likely decreases in cortisol immediately post, respectively, with TRAD reporting likely decreases at 24-h post-training.

Conclusions

SS and TRI can enhance training efficiency and reduce training time. However, acute and short-term physiological responses differ between protocols. Athletes can utilise SS and TRI resistance training, but may require additional recovery post-training to minimise effects of fatigue.