Match Activities in Basketball Games: Comparison Between Different Competitive Levels

Comparison of Physical Characteristics, Strength and Power Performance Between Elite 3 × 3 and 5 × 5 Male Basketball Players

Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to explore the differences in physical characteristics, leg strength, and jumping performance between 3 × 3 and 5 × 5 male basketball players. Methods: Twelve elite-level 5 × 5 basketball players (26.0 ± 13.0 years; 201.4 ± 6.6 cm; 95.50 ± 11.50 kg) and twelve elite-level 3 × 3 basketball players (26.7 ± 7.3 years; 193.0 ± 5.1 cm; 98.03 ± 9.77 kg), all male, were enrolled in the study. After anthropometric measurements and standardized warm ups, countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump (DJ) and isokinetic strength testing were conducted, respectively. Results: An independent two-sample t-test revealed that 5 × 5 athletes were notably (p < 0.005) taller, with a lower body fat percentage (11.9 ± 3.6% vs. 18.6 ± 10.9%) and higher quadricep strength (317.21 ± 36.54 N·m vs. 284.76 ± 29.77 N·m and 313.32 ± 24.08 N·m vs. 285.87 ± 31.2 N·m for left and right leg, respectively). Conversely, 3 × 3 players displayed superior CMJ performance in concentric and eccentric peak forces, peak power, and reactive strength index. In the DJ, 3 × 3 players also excelled in eccentric peak force, reactive strength index, and jump height. Conclusions: The findings indicate that while 5 × 5 basketball players excel in body physique and in the strength of their lower body, 3 × 3 basketball players outperform them in power-related metrics.

The reliability of a commonly used (CatapultTM Vector S7) microtechnology unit to detect movement characteristics used in court-based sports

This two-part study evaluated the inter- and intra-unit reliability of Catapult Vector S7 microtechnology units in an indoor court-sport setting. In part-one, 27 female netball players completed a controlled movement series on two separate occasions to assess the inter- and intra-unit reliability of inertial movement analysis (IMA) variables (acceleration, deceleration, changes of direction and jumps). In part-two, 13 female netball players participated in 10 netball training sessions to assess the inter-unit reliability of IMA and PlayerLoadTM variables. Participants wore two microtechnology units placed side-by-side. Reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), coefficient of variation (CV) and typical error (TE). Total IMA events showed good inter-unit reliability during the movement series (ICC, 1.00; CV, 3.7%) and training sessions (ICC, 0.99; CV, 4.5%). Inter-unit (ICC, 0.97; CV, 4.7%) and intra-unit (ICC, 0.97; CV, 4.3%) reliability for total IMA jump count was good in the movement series, with moderate CV (7.7%) during training. Reliability decreased when IMA counts were categorised by intensity and movement type. PlayerLoadTM (ICC, 1.00; CV, 1.5%) and associated variables revealed good inter-reliability, except peak PlayerLoadTM (moderate) and PlayerLoadSLOW (moderate). Counts of IMA variables, when considered as total and low-medium counts, and PlayerLoad variables are reliable for monitoring indoor court-sports players.

Power Loss Minimization Through Maximal Power Endurance or Repeated Power Training Programs

PURPOSE

The present study analyzed the effects of a maximal-power-endurance (MPE) versus a repeated-power-ability (RPA) training program on different strength, power, and repeated-power measurements in a short- and long-term training period and the relationships between changes in all variables.

METHODS

Twenty-two young highly trained male basketball players were randomly allocated to 1 of the 2 groups (MPE, n = 11; RPA, n = 11) and evaluated by 1-repetition maximum and incremental load, RPA, and MPE tests in the bench-press exercise before and after a period of 4 and 8 weeks. The MPE group performed 2 to 4 sets of a postdetermined number of repetitions (ie, set stopped when maximum power output decreased >10%) using the load that maximized power output. The RPA group carried out 1 to 3 blocks of 5 sets of 5 repetitions with a load that maximized power output.

RESULTS

Both groups significantly (P < .001; effect size = 0.58; 1.56) improved 1-repetition maximum, maximum power output, and 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80% of 1-repetition maximum from pretest to posttest in the incremental load test. Significant improvements (P < .001) were found for the RPA and MPE groups in the best, mean, and last set in the RPA test at all times. Furthermore, a significant (P < .001) time × group interaction was found in the MPE test, showing significant improvements in both groups at posttest. In addition, at posttest, intraset power fluctuation in the mean was significantly (P < .05; effect size = 0.45) better in MPE group compared with RPA group.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, both training programs represent appropriate methods to improve neuromuscular measurements, although MPE training seems to be a more volume-efficient strategy (∼50% fewer repetitions) to enhance several fatigue-resistance indexes (intraset power fluctuation in the mean).

Performance effects of functional knee brace removal and prolonged use in healthy male athlete: Lower extremity power, acceleration, speed, and agility

OBJECTIVES

Knee braces were introduced to sports 30 years ago. However, knee brace use for non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury prevention intervention remains contentious due to concerns about performance hindrances. Since knee brace use is a potential modifiable risk factor, we aimed to investigate the effect of discounting and continued functional knee brace (FKB) on lower extremity power-vertical jump (VJ), acceleration, speed, and agility performance.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort crossover study.

METHODS

Twenty-seven healthy male athletes performed seven tests, over six days of 12 test sessions (S), during three test conditions (non-braced, braced, and removed brace or continued brace use). This study focuses on VJ, acceleration, speed, and agility performance during S12 when athletes were randomly selected to remove the FKB after 17.5 h or continue using the FKB for 21.0 h.

RESULTS

After brace removal, nonsignificant performance levels improved in the VJ (2.7 %; 95 % CI 52.5-62.8; Cohen's effect size (ES) = trivial), acceleration (1.8 %; 95 % CI 0.500-0.562; ES = small), and agility (0.5 %; 95 % CI 9.25-10.13; ES = trivial), while a nonsignificant slower speed was recorded (0.5 %; 95 % CI 1.81-1.95; ES = trivial). Continued brace use led to a nonsignificant performance improvement in all tests; VJ (3.1 %; 95 % CI 53.5-60.2; ES = small), acceleration (1.5 %; 95 % CI 0.511-0.561; ES = trivial), speed (1.0 %; 95 % CI 1.83-1.95; ES = trivial), and agility (1.8 %; 95 % CI 9.26-10.04; ES = trivial).

CONCLUSIONS

Removal of FKB led to improved performance in three performance tests, while continued brace use improved performance in all four tests.

Female basketball game performance is influenced by menstrual cycle phase, age, perceived demands and game-related contextual factors

This study evaluated the influence of physical and perceived game demands, menstrual cycle phase, perceived recovery, individual and game-related contextual factors on competitive performance in professional, female basketball players.11 professional female players (age: 20.6 ± 2.7 years) were monitored for game-related statistics (Performance Index Rating, PIR; rebounds, REB; effective field goal %, eFG%; turnovers, TO), objective (PlayerLoad per minute, PL·min-1) and subjective (RPE) game loads, pre-game perceived recovery (Total Quality Recovery, TQRpre), menstrual phase (follicular; luteal) and game-related contextual factors (game location; game outcome; score differential; opponent level) during 12 official games. Separate linear mixed models were used to evaluate the influence of RPE, PL·min-1, TQRpre, menstrual phase, contextual factors, and individual characteristics (age; playing position) on game-related statistics.Higher PIR and eFG% were found for older players and those who reported higher RPE (all p < 0.05). Higher age also led to less TO (p = 0.042). eFG% was higher when players reported higher TQRpre ;(p = 0.010). Better shooting (eFG%) and rebounding (REB) performances were found during the follicular menstrual phase (p < 0.05). More REB were collected in won games (p = 0.002).This study suggests that the co-influences of perceptual, menstrual-related, individual and game-related contextual factors should be considered to optimise female basketball players' performance.

Intensity Zones and Intensity Thresholds Used to Quantify External Load in Competitive Basketball: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Despite widespread use of intensity zones to quantify external load variables in basketball research, the consistency in identifying zones and accompanying intensity thresholds using predominant monitoring approaches in training and games remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this work was to examine the external load intensity zones and thresholds adopted across basketball studies using video-based time-motion analysis (TMA), microsensors, and local positioning systems (LPS).

METHODS

PubMed, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched from inception until 31 January 2023 for studies using intensity zones to quantify external load during basketball training sessions or games. Studies were excluded if they examined players participating in recreational or wheelchair basketball, were reviews or meta-analyses, or utilized monitoring approaches other than video-based TMA, microsensors, or LPS.

RESULTS

Following screening, 86 studies were included. Video-based TMA studies consistently classified jogging, running, sprinting, and jumping as intensity zones, but demonstrated considerable variation in classifying low-intensity (standing and walking) and basketball-specific activities. Microsensor studies mostly utilized a single, and rather consistent, threshold to identify only high-intensity activities (> 3.5 m·s-2 for accelerations, decelerations, and changes-in-direction or > 40 cm for jumps), not separately quantifying lower intensity zones. Similarly, LPS studies predominantly quantified only high-intensity activities in a relatively consistent manner for speed (> 18.0 m·s-1) and acceleration/deceleration zones (> 2.0 m·s-2); however, the thresholds adopted for various intensity zones differed greatly to those used in TMA and microsensor research.

CONCLUSIONS

Notable inconsistencies were mostly evident for low-intensity activities, basketball-specific activities, and between the different monitoring approaches. Accordingly, we recommend further research to inform the development of consensus guidelines outlining suitable approaches when setting external load intensity zones and accompanying thresholds in research and practice.

Match-related fatigue in basketball: A systematic review

This study aimed to systematically review fatigue responses following basketball match-play and during congested match schedules, considering performance, physiological, athlete-reported, and sleep-related outcomes. Relevant articles published until 23 January 2024 were searched using Scopus, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus. After screening, 44 studies were included in the systematic review. The main findings indicate that, in most cases, vertical jumping and linear sprinting showed significant decrements at match-end (<1 hour post-match) compared to pre-match [small-to-very large effect sizes (ES)], with persistent (≥1 hour post-match) impairments lasting 24-48 hours in jumping (only in males, small-to-very large ES) and linear sprinting (moderate-to-very large ES). Physiological changes generally included significant increases (moderate-to-very large ES) in cortisol and nutrient metabolism markers at match-end, alongside persistent increases in muscle damage (mainly at 13-72 hours post-match) and inflammation (13-48 hours). Finally, match-play generally increased muscle soreness (mainly at 24-48 hours, moderate-to-very large ES) and perceived fatigue (mainly at match-end), with unclear effects on mood, and no apparent impact on sleep-related outcomes. Research assessing congested match schedules is limited, although possible worsening in muscle damage, inflammation, perceived fatigue and well-being were observed in male players. Overall, these findings indicate an impairment in some of the reviewed performance, physiological, and athlete-reported outcomes.

Effectiveness of an Individualized Training Based on Dynamic Strength Index on Sprinting, Jumping and Change of Direction Performance in Basketball Players: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The dynamic strength index (DSI) is calculated as the ratio between countermovement jump (CMJ) peak force and isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) peak force and is said to inform whether ballistic or strength training is warranted for a given athlete. This study assessed the impact of an individualized in-season resistance training program, guided by DSI on basketball players' physical performance. Forty-three elite players (19.4 ± 2.9 years; 1.97 ± 0.08 cm; 89.1 ± 9.5 kg) were divided into an intervention group (IG) (27 players) and a control group (CG) (16 players). The IG was further split based on DSI into a ballistic group (DSI ≤ 0.90, 11 players) and a strength group (DSI > 0.90, 16 players). Over five weeks, participants underwent two weekly resistance sessions, with the IG following a DSI-based program and the CG a standard program. Performance was measured pre- and post-intervention through 20-m sprints, 505 change of direction test, CMJ, and IMTP. There were statistically significant improvements in the IG, notably in sprint times (η2 = 0.12-0.21, p < 0.05) and 505 test (η2 = 0.15-0.16, p < 0.05), predominantly in the strength group. The CG's performance was either unchanged or declined for different variables. Our results suggest that DSI-guided training effectively enhances basketball players' physical performance within a competitive season.

Game schedule, travel demands and contextual factors influence key game-related statistics among the top European male basketball teams

This study examined the effects of game schedule, travel demands and contextual factors on team game-related statistics during a full season. The top 10 teams competing in the 2020-2021 Euroleague basketball season were included where game-related statistics from their respective national competitions and the Euroleague competition were retrieved (761 games). Hierarchical linear regression models were computed to evaluate the effects of distance travelled, game schedule and contextual factors for the previous and current games (league, season phase, opponent level, game outcome, score differential) on key performance indicators (points, shooting, rebounds, assists, turnovers, fouls). Several significant models (p < 0.05) yielded R2 values ranging from 0.05 to 0.22 with small-to-medium effect magnitudes. Analyses revealed significant associations between longer durations separating games and less free-throws being made and between further distances travelled and worse 3-point shooting, more offensive rebounds and more fouls. Regarding contextual factors, favourable outcomes for shooting, assists, steals, fouling and turnovers were significantly associated with team success. Playing higher-level teams and competing in playoffs or finals was associated with several diminished outcomes. These results emphasize the multi-factorial nature of performance in elite European basketball, with game schedule, travel and various contextual factors requiring consideration in developing holistic operational plans for teams.

The influence of physical fitness qualities, individual characteristics and contextual factors on youth basketball players' perceived exertion and recovery responses to official games

BACKGROUND

This study examined the influence of physical fitness qualities, individual characteristics, and contextual factors on perceived exertion and recovery responses to official games in youth basketball players.

METHODS

Twenty-six males (age: 15.8±1.2 years; 12 guards, 9 forwards, and 5 centers) and 7 females (age: 16.1±0.9 years; 3 guards, 4 forwards) were monitored for an entire basketball season (N.=635 observations). Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery (level 1) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests were administered, with players categorized as high and low Yo-Yo and CMJ groups according to test results. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected after each official game. Before the game and the day after, the Total Quality of Recovery (scores) were collected, and the difference between post- and pregame TQR was calculated (TQRΔ). Separate linear mixed models evaluated the effects of sex (M; F), fitness qualities (high Yo-Yo; low Yo-Yo) (high CMJ; low CMJ), playing position (guard; forward; center), game outcome (won; loss) and game location (home; away).

RESULTS

Male players reported higher RPE (7.0±0.3) than females (5.5±0.4) (P=0.003, effect size [ES]: moderate). Players with high Yo-Yo performance also reported higher RPE (6.7±0.4) than low Yo-Yo (5.8±0.3) (P=0.049, ES: small). TQRΔ was higher in guards (-1.3±0.2) than forwards (-0.8±0.2) (P=0.041, ES: trivial), and lower after lost games (-0.8±0.2) compared to won games (-1.2±0.2) (P=0.002, ES: small).

CONCLUSIONS

In youth basketball, postgame perceived exertion and recovery responses are influenced by players' sex, intermittent endurance capacity, and game outcome. Current findings can help youth basketball practitioners to better understand their players' performances and perceptual responses.

Functional knee brace use for 21 h leads to a longer duration to achieve peak vertical ground reaction forces and the removal of the brace after 17.5 h results in faster loading of the knee joint

PURPOSE

To investigate the landing strategies used after discontinuing and continuing the use of a functional knee brace (FKB) while performing a drop jump.

METHODS

Following published methodology and power analysis, 23 uninjured male athletes, mean age of 19.4 ± 3.0 years, performed seven tests, during three test conditions (nonbraced, braced and removed brace or continued brace use), over 6 days of 12 testing sessions (S) for a total of 38.5 h. Each subject was provided with a custom-fitted FKB. This study focuses on the single leg drop jump kinetics during S12 when subjects were randomly selected to remove the FKB after 17.5 h or continued use of FKB. The time to peak vertical ground reaction forces (PVGRF) and PVGRF were recorded on landing in eight trials.

RESULTS

After brace removal, a significantly shorter mean time to PVGRF was recorded (9.4 ± 22.9 msec (3.9%), p = 0.005, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): -168.1, 36.1), while continued brace use required a nonsignificant (n.s.) longer mean duration to achieve PVGRF (19.4 ± 53.6 msec (8.9%), n.s., 95% CI: -49.7, 73.4). No significant mean PVGRF difference was found in brace removal (25.3 ± 65.8 N) and continued brace use (25.1 ± 23.0 N).

CONCLUSION

Removal of FKB after 17.5 h of use led to a significantly shorter time to achieve PVGRF, while continued brace use for 21 h required a longer duration to achieve PVGRF, suggesting faster and slower knee joint loading, respectively. Understanding the concerns associated with the use of FKB and the kinetics of the knee joint will assist clinicians in counselling athletes about the risks and benefits of using an FKB.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

Warm-up is an efficient strategy to prevent diurnal variation of short-term maximal performance in young basketball players

The objectives of this study were to investigate: 1) whether there were morning-to-evening differences in short-term maximal performance and 2) the impact of prolonged and specific warm-up on short-term maximal performance diurnal variations in young basketball players. Fifteen basketball players of both sexes (Male = 8; Female = 7; age: 14.4 ± 0.46 yr; weight: 64.7 ± 7.1 kg; height: 175.2 ± 6.6 cm; BMI: 21.1 ± 1.9 kg/m2) completed the following short-term maximal performance tests: CMJ with and without arm swing, Lane Agility Drill, Zig-Zag agility test with and without the ball, Sprint 20 m with and without the ball with the passage at 5 and 10 m. All tests were performed after the 15-min standard warm-up procedure (with static stretching) and/or 25-min specific warm-up (with prolonged running and dynamic stretching) in the morning and evening. Vertical jumping tests and all change-of-direction speed tests (with and without a ball) with superior responses were achieved in the evening after standard warm-up among all participants (p < 0.05). In contrast, superior short-term maximal performance was observed in the morning after prolonged and specific warm-up protocol (p < 0.05). It was concluded that specific and prolonged warm-up protocols are suitable strategy to prevent diurnal variation in short-term maximal performance in young basketball players.

Influence of Maturation and Determinants of Repeated-Sprint Ability in Youth Basketball Players

ABSTRACT

Gonzalo-Skok, O, and Bishop, C. Influence of maturation and determinants of repeated-sprint ability in youth basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 325-333, 2024-The main aims of the current study were (a) to determine the main predictors of general and specific repeated-sprint ability (RSA) tests, (b) to analyze the relationships between RSA tests and independent measures of physical performance, (c) to examine whether between-age differences exist, and (d) to assess whether maturation affects those mentioned above in young basketball players. Thirty-five young (U-14 to U-16), highly trained basketball players performed a linear sprint test (5, 10, and 25 m), an incremental running test, and 2 repeated-sprint tests (general [RSG]: 6 × 25 m; specific [RSS]: 6 × 5 + 5 m with a 45° change of direction and 20 seconds of passive recovery in both tests). Anthropometric variables were measured and used to calculate age at peak height velocity (APHV), which was used to determine maturation. The main determinants of RSA tests were aerobic performance and linear sprinting for RSS ( R2 = 0.84) and adding the percentage of body fat for RSG ( R2 = 0.94). Almost perfect relationships ( r = 0.93-0.99) were found between all RSA variables (i.e., the best [RSG b and RSS b ] and mean time [RSG m and RSS m ]). As age increased, performance in RSA was evident, as shown by improved best and mean scores. When APHV was controlled for, no significant differences were apparent in the comparison from U-14 and U-16 in 25 m, RSG b , and RSG m . By contrast, significant differences ( p < 0.05) were still evident with APHV controlled between U-14 and U-16 in 5 m, 10 m, RSS b , and RSS m . In conclusion, maturation positively affects linear sprinting and linear RSA performance, whereas specific (multidirectional) RSA seems to be related to other factors.

A Systematic Review on the Physical, Physiological, Perceptual, and Technical-Tactical Demands of Official 3 × 3 Basketball Games

PURPOSE

To systematically review the physical, physiological, perceptual, and technical-tactical demands of official 3 × 3 basketball games.

METHODS

The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines were followed. Three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were systematically searched to identify studies assessing physical, physiological, perceptual, and technical-tactical demands of 3 × 3 games. Data were also coded according to player sex and tournament phase. Quality assessment of the included studies was performed using a modified Downs and Black checklist.

RESULTS

Thirteen articles were finally included, with a mean quality of 8.6 (1.1) out of 11. Three-by-three basketball games have an intermittent profile (1:1 work-rest ratio), with a duration of ∼15 minutes, and are characterized by short (6-8 s) ball possessions and considerable physical (17-33 accelerations, 24-44 decelerations, 62-94 changes of directions, and 17-24 jumps per game) and physiological (lactate: ∼6.2 mmol·L-1) demands. Overall, the game performance profile is similar in males and females, with minor changes happening across tournament phases. Several key technical-tactical indicators were identified as discriminating winning and losing teams, such as better shooting and defensive efficiency, low number of turnovers, and implementing tactical actions involving more players, passing first, and ending possessions with shots from outside of the arch from the top of the key.

CONCLUSIONS

Three-by-three basketball is an intermittent, physically demanding sport characterized by quick plays and specific tactical constraints. This review provides information that should be considered by performance staff to improve training prescription, game tactical plans, and for player selection and talent identification.

Internal and external workload in national and international netball competition

Differences in workload exist between netball playing positions and competition levels, but no research has compared workloads experienced by the same elite players during national and international competitions. This study collected internal (heart rate) and external (PlayerLoad·min-1) workload data per match quarter from 44 players during a national competition and 12 players during an international competition. Nine players played in both competitions. Linear mixed models compared percentage of match quarter in each heart rate zone and PlayerLoad·min-1 between competitions for each playing position. Workloads against low- and high-ranked international opponents were also compared. Internal workloads were greater in national compared to international competition for GD and WD positions. PlayerLoad·min-1 was significantly higher by 8-13% in the national competition for positions WD and C, and by 5-8% in the international competition for GD and GA. Positional differences may indicate a role of the team's tactical style of play. Workloads were generally greater against higher- rather than lower-ranked international opponents. These results indicate that tactical factors in combination with playing position and opposition characteristics should be considered when preparing physically for matches.

Physical Demands of Elite Male and Female 3 × 3 International Basketball Matches

ABSTRACT

Ferioli, D, Conte, D, Rucco, D, Alcaraz, PE, Vaquera, A, Romagnoli, M, and Rampinini, E. Physical demands of elite male and female 3×3 international basketball matches. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): e289-e296, 2023-This study aimed to (1) characterize the physical demands of 3 × 3 basketball games during live playing time and ball possession and (2) assess the differences in physical demands between male and female players. Following an observational design, video footage from 27 games of the International Basketball Federation 3 × 3 World Cup 2019 were analyzed from 104 international 3 × 3 basketball players ( n = 52 male and n = 52 female players) resulting in a total of 216 (104 male and 112 female) individual game samples. Manual frame-by-frame time-motion analyses determined the relative frequency (n·min -1 ) and duration (%) for several physical demands at different intensities, according to sex, during the live playing time and in ball possession phases. Linear mixed models for repeated measures and effect size (ES) analyses revealed small non-significant differences in the intermittent profile of 3 × 3 basketball games according to sex (total movements per minute, male = 39.3 (38.6-40.1); female = 40.2 (39.5-41.0), estimated marginal means with 95% confidence intervals). Female competitions had significantly greater number of low-intensity activities (LIA, small ES) and high-intensity activities (HIA, small ES) performed per minute over longer games ( small ES), whereas male players had more recovery activities ( small ES). During ball possession, male players spent a larger amount of time performing LIA ( small ES) than female players, who displayed both the greatest number of HIA and the highest percentage of playing time performed at high intensity ( small ES). Overall, these findings suggest that basketball coaches should design sex-specific training sessions based on the specific match demands.

The incidence rate of ACL injuries and ankle sprains in basketball players: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the incidence rate of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries and ankle sprains according to player sex, playing level, and exposure setting (training vs. games) in basketball players.

METHODS

PubMed, MEDLINE, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect were searched. Only studies reporting the number of ACL injuries and/or ankle sprains alongside the number of athlete-exposures (training sessions and/or games) in basketball players were included.

RESULTS

Thirty studies (17 reporting ACL injuries and 16 reporting ankle sprains) were included in the meta-analysis. Higher (p < 0.05) ACL injury incidence rates per 1000 athlete-exposures were recorded in females (female: 0.20 95% confidence intervals [0.16-0.25]; male: 0.07 [0.05-0.08]; female-to-male ratio: 3.33 [3.10-3.57]), in players competing at higher playing levels (amateur: 0.06 [0.04-0.09]; intermediate: 0.16 [0.13-0.20]; elite: 0.25 [0.14-0.64]), and in games (games: female, 0.27 [0.21-0.32]; male, 0.06 [0.03-0.08]; training: female, 0.03 [0.02-0.05]; male: 0.01 [0.00-0.02]; game-to-training ratio: 7.90 [4.88-12.91]). Higher (p < 0.05) ankle sprain incidence rates per 1000 athlete-exposures were observed in males (female: 0.82 [0.61-1.03]; male: 0.90 [0.61-1.19]; female-to-male ratio: 0.91 [0.83-0.99]), in players competing at higher playing levels (amateur: 0.54 [0.51-0.57]; intermediate: 1.12 [1.00-1.24]; elite: 1.87 [1.29-2.46]), and in games (games: 2.51 [1.85-3.16]; training: 0.80 [0.52-0.80]; game-to-training ratio: 2.77 [2.35-3.26]).

CONCLUSION

According to player sex, ACL injury incidence rate is higher in females, while ankle sprain incidence rate is greater in males. ACL injury and ankle sprain incidence rates are greater in players competing at higher playing levels and during games compared to training.

Technical-Tactical Demands of 3 × 3 International Basketball Games According to Game Outcome, Player Sex, and Competition Phase

ABSTRACT

Ferioli, D, Conte, D, Scanlan, AT, and Vaquera, A. Technical-tactical demands of 3 × 3 international basketball games according to game outcome, player sex, and competition phase. J Strength Cond Res 37(2): 403-412, 2023-Despite the popularity of 3 × 3 basketball rapidly growing on a global scale, a paucity of data exist on player demands during competition, particularly considering various factors. This study aimed to quantify the technical-tactical demands of international-level 3 × 3 basketball games according to game outcome, player sex, and competition phase. Overall, 96 players from 24 national teams (48 players across 12 teams in each sex) competing at the 2019 European Basketball Cup 3 × 3 were included in this study. Technical-tactical demands during games including shooting, game-related, and possession-related statistics were retrospectively gathered from public sources or analyzed using video analyses. Linear mixed models and effect size analyses were used to determine differences in demands according to game outcome (wins vs. losses), player sex (males vs. females), and competition phase (group games vs. finals games). Winning teams ( p < 0.05, small-large ) scored more shots, shot more efficiently, secured more rebounds, committed fewer turnovers and fouls, and drew more fouls to shoot free-throws. Differences between sexes ( p < 0.05, small-moderate ) showed male teams shot more efficiently, scored more 2-point shots, and scored more points, whereas female teams attempted more 1-point shots, committed more turnovers, and had more possessions. Considering the competition phase, more blocks were completed during group games, and more points per possession were achieved during finals games ( p < 0.05, small ). This study provides foundation normative values regarding the technical-tactical demands of 3 × 3 game-play during an international competition, with reported data able to be used by practitioners in developing precise, sex-specific training and tactical strategies to optimize team success.

ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR PHYSICAL RECOVERY AND MUSCLE STRENGTH AFTER BASKETBALL TRAINING

ABSTRACT Introduction: The need to increase muscle strength and optimize physical recovery is essential for athletes’ maximum performance in basketball competitions. However, alternative interventions are still little explored for the physical recovery process. Objective: Explore the effect of muscle strength training in basketball and alternative strategies for physical recovery. Methods: After basketball strength training, the control group adopted the traditional stretching method, while the experimental group combined yoga and music for a gradual warm-up and body relaxation. In this process, we measured changes in blood lactate content during exercise. Within 5 minutes, 15 minutes, and 30 minutes after exercise was used to analyze the effect of muscle recovery between the groups. Results: Muscle strength training can comprehensively improve performance indicators of all aspects of basketball. Still, many biochemical parameters of muscle strength, especially of the shoulder and back, showed no significant effect in the control group. The relative total work (TWP), average power (AP), and relative average power (APP) indicators showed a significant impact after the alternative intervention in the experimental group. Conclusion: Muscle strength training can effectively improve multiple qualities in athletes, providing gains in strength development and motor skills with an acceleration in the physical recovery stage. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

BALANCE TRAINING AND PHYSICAL ABILITY OF BASKETBALL PLAYERS

ABSTRACT Introduction Balance in gait is a fundamental factor for rhythmic changes on the court, and physical fitness is a basic requirement for competitiveness in basketball. Objective Analyze the effects of balance training on the gait and physical fitness of basketball players. Methods Thirty basketball athletes were selected and randomly divided into a control and experimental group. A balance training program including balls was added to the experimental group, while the control group followed only the traditional training program. The experiment lasted 8 weeks, with the interventions applied 3 times a week. Finally, relevant data collected before and after the experiment were statistically analyzed and discussed. Results The experimental and the control groups showed a statistical gain in balance, with a greater change interval in the experimental group, demonstrating the effect of dynamic balance training in improving basketball-related physical indices. Conclusion There are some deficiencies in the traditional basketball training program that can be compensated with the addition of the balance training program presented in this article, fully improving the skills of basketball players. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

Differential Repeated Sprinting Training in Youth Basketball Players: An Analysis of Effects According to Maturity Status

The differential learning approach, which includes fluctuations that occur without movement repetitions and without corrections has received growing interest in the skill acquisition field. This study aimed to determine the effects of a 9-week training intervention involving differential repeated sprint training on a series of physical tests in youth basketball players. A total of 29 participants with different maturity statuses (pre-peak height velocity (PHV), n = 7; mid-PHV, n = 6; post-PHV, n = 16) completed 2 sessions per week of differential repeated sprint training for a period of 9 weeks. Sessions consisted of 2 × 10 repetitions sprints of 20-m whereby participants were instructed to perform various additional fluctuations for each repetition. Before and after the training intervention, participants completed jumping tests (countermovement jump (CMJ), single-leg CMJs, the modified 505 agility test, and straight sprinting tests (0-10 splits time), and maturity status was evaluated as well. Within-group analysis showed improvement in CMJ asymmetries and changes in direction asymmetries and 10-m sprint performance for the pre-, mid-, and post-PHV groups, respectively (p < 0.05), with large to very large effects. Analysis of covariance demonstrated that changes in sprint time in post-PHV players were greater than in the pre- and mid-PHV groups (p < 0.05), with moderate effect. Adding random fluctuations during repeated sprint training appear to be a suitable and feasible training strategy for maintaining and enhancing physical performance in youth basketball players, irrespective of maturity status. Furthermore, the present findings encourage practitioners to implement the present approach in youth athletes to improve their physical performance, but they should be aware that training response can vary according to maturity status.

MONITORIZACIÓN DE UN MICROCICLO COMPETITIVO EN BALONCESTO FEMENINO PROFESIONAL MEDIANTE DISPOSITIVOS INERCIALES

La implementación de estrategias efectivas de control de carga en el entrenamiento es primordial para mejorar el rendimiento. El objetivo fue caracterizar las demandas soportadas durante un microciclo competitivo de un equipo profesional de baloncesto femenino y su interacción con la competición. Diez jugadoras se equiparon con un dispositivo inercial y una banda de frecuencia cardíaca. Se analizó la carga soportada por las jugadoras durante el entrenamiento y la competición mediante variables de Carga Externa: (i) Distancia recorrida, (ii) Distancia recorrida a alta intensidad, (iii) Playerload, (iv) Saltos, (v) Aceleraciones y Deceleraciones, y (vi) Velocidad máxima y media; y variables de Carga Interna: (i) Frecuencia cardíaca media y máxima, (ii) Zonas de % Frecuencia Cardíaca Máxima. Se analizaron diferencias entre el entrenamiento y la competición mediante un análisis ANOVA, observando que la competición fue la condición más exigente en todas las variables estudiadas a excepción de los saltos por minuto.

Training and match demands differ between the regular season and finals in semi-professional basketball

Basketball competitions often include a scheduled regular season followed by knock-out finals. Understanding training and match demands through the season can help optimize performance and reduce injury risk. This study investigated whether training and/or match demands differed between the regular season and finals, and whether these differences were dependent on player role. Average session intensity and volume and durations of relative exercise intensities (inactive, light, moderate-vigorous, maximal, supramaximal) were quantified during training sessions and matches using accelerometry in two semi-professional basketball teams (n = 23; 10 women, 13 men). Training and match demands were compared between the regular season (training: 445 observations; matches: 387 observations) and finals (training: 113 observations, matches: 75 observations) with consideration of player role (starters, in-rotation bench, out-rotation bench). During finals matches, starters received 4.4 min more playing time (p = 0.03), performed 14% more absolute maximal activity (p < 0.01) and had 8% less relative inactive time (p = 0.02) when compared to the regular season. Out-rotation bench players received 2.1 min less playing time (p < 0.01), performed 33% less absolute maximal activity (p = 0.01) and 57% less absolute supramaximal activity (p < 0.01) in finals when compared to the regular season. During finals training sessions, average training intensity was 5% higher (p = 0.02), absolute moderate-vigorous activity was 3% higher (p = 0.04), relative maximal activity was 12% higher (p < 0.01), and relative inactive time was 5% lower (p = 0.03) when compared to the regular season. These findings suggest starters need to be physically prepared for greater match demands during finals, while out-rotation bench players should supplement their training during finals with extra supramaximal activity to maintain their conditioning levels for matches.

Development Status and Influencing Factors of Competitive Basketball Management System under the Background of Deep Learning

Competitive basketball is one of the most popular sports in the world. With the development of China's sports power strategy, the national movement has strengthened the status of basketball in sports. However, China's competitive basketball ranking is not high in the world, and the analysis of the reasons should start with the management system. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the development status and influencing factors of China's competitive basketball management system under the background of deep learning. For the background of deep learning, this paper describes the application of deep learning algorithms in basketball strategy. It adopts the expert interview method for the competitive basketball management system and elaborates in detail on five aspects: target mechanism, competition mechanism, selection mechanism, market mechanism, and incentive mechanism. The experimental results of the article believe that, based on the suggestions of 10 experts, the current Chinese competitive basketball selection mechanism is the most influential factor, with a weight of 16.1%, and the smallest impact is the level of athletes, accounting for 11.4%.

Performance Differences in Male Youth Basketball Players According to Selection Status and Playing Position: An Evaluation of the Basketball Learning and Performance Assessment Instrument

The Basketball Learning and Performance Assessment Instrument (BALPAI) has been initially developed and evaluated to assess the performance of students or youth basketball players on the entry level. As it is currently the only observational instrument that allows an overall assessment of players’ in-game performance, it might represent a valuable tool for talent identification and development purposes. To investigate this potential field of application, this study aimed to evaluate the BALPAI regarding reliability and diagnostic validity when assessing youth basketball players within a competitive setting. The study sample comprised N = 54 male youth players (M_age = 14.36 ± 0.33 years) of five regional selection teams (Point Guards, PG: n = 19; Shooting Guards and Small Forwards, SG/SF: n = 21; and Power Forwards and Centers, PF/C: n = 14) that competed at the annual U15 national selection tournament of the German Basketball Federation (n = 24 selected; n = 30 non-selected). A total of 1997 ball-bound actions from five games were evaluated with BALPAI. The inter-rater reliability was assessed for technical execution, decision making, and final efficacy. The diagnostic validity of the instrument was examined via mean group comparisons of the players’ offensive game involvement and performance regarding both selection-dependent and position-dependent differences. The inter-rater reliability was confirmed for all performance-related components (κ_adj ≥ 0.51) while diagnostic validity was established only for specific the BALPAI variables. The selection-dependent analysis demonstrated higher offensive game involvement of selected players in all categories (p < 0.05, 0.27 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.40) as well as better performance in shooting and receiving (p < 0.05, 0.23 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.24). Within the positional groups, the strongest effects were demonstrated among PG (p < 0.05, 0.46 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.60). The position-dependent analysis revealed that PG are more involved in total ball-bound actions (p < 0.05; 0.34 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.53), passing (p < 0.001; 0.55 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.67), and dribbling (p < 0.05, 0.45 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.69) compared to players in other positions. Further differences between players according to selection status and playing position were not detected. The results of this evaluation indicate that the instrument, in its current form, is not yet applicable in competitive youth basketball. The findings highlight the importance of optimizing BALPAI for reliable and valid performance assessments in this context. Future studies should investigate the application of stricter and position-specific criteria to use the observational tool for talent identification and development purposes.

LIMB MOVEMENT OF BASKETBALL ATHLETES IN SPORTS EXERCISE

ABSTRACT Introduction: The performance of basketball players is based on physical function and quality. In addition to genetic factors, physical function can also be improved through acquired training. Objective: The article analyzes the concept of body movement through literature data and a questionnaire survey. Methods: This article analyzes the mechanical characteristics of basketball technology from the perspective of physiology and proposes methods to develop the strength of basketball players. Results: Through the activation of different training actions, controlling the muscles that maintain the stability of the limbs to adjust body balance is beneficial to improvement of the coordination and sensitivity of the muscles. Conclusion: Pay attention to the principle of incremental load, the SAID principle, and comprehensiveness in strength training. The training method adopted is helpful to the improvement of the athlete’s aerobic metabolism. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment results.

A Systematic Review on Fitness Testing in Adult Male Basketball Players: Tests Adopted, Characteristics Reported and Recommendations for Practice

Background

As basketball match-play requires players to possess a wide range of physical characteristics, many tests have been introduced in the literature to identify talent and quantify fitness in various samples of players. However, a synthesis of the literature to identify the most frequently used tests, outcome variables, and normative values for basketball-related physical characteristics in adult male basketball players is yet to be conducted.

Objective

The primary objectives of this systematic review are to (1) identify tests and outcome variables used to assess physical characteristics in adult male basketball players across all competition levels, (2) report a summary of anthropometric, muscular power, linear speed, change-of-direction speed, agility, strength, anaerobic capacity, and aerobic capacity in adult male basketball players based on playing position and competition level, and (3) introduce a framework outlining recommended testing approaches to quantify physical characteristics in adult male basketball players.

Methods

A systematic review of MEDLINE, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to identify relevant studies. To be eligible for inclusion, studies were required to: (1) be original research articles; (2) be published in a peer-reviewed journal; (3) have full-text versions available in the English language; and (4) include the primary aim of reporting tests used and/or the physical characteristics of adult (i.e., ≥ 18 years of age) male basketball players. Additionally, data from the top 10 draft picks who participated in the National Basketball Association combined from 2011–12 to 2020–21 were extracted from the official league website to highlight the physical characteristics of elite 19- to 24-year-old basketball players.

Results

A total of 1684 studies were identified, with 375 being duplicates. Consequently, the titles and abstracts of 1309 studies were screened and 231 studies were eligible for full-text review. The reference list of each study was searched, with a further 59 studies identified as eligible for review. After full-text screening, 137 studies identified tests, while 114 studies reported physical characteristics in adult male basketball players.

Conclusions

Physical characteristics reported indicate a wide range of abilities are present across playing competitions. The tests and outcome variables reported in the literature highlight the multitude of tests currently being used. Because there are no accepted international standards for physical assessment of basketball players, establishing normative data is challenging. Therefore, future testing should involve repeatable protocols that are standardised and provide outcomes that can be monitored across time. Recommendations for testing batteries in adult male basketball players are provided so improved interpretation of data can occur.

Clinical Trial Registration

This review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews and allocated registration number CRD42020187151 on 28 April, 2020.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01626-3.

Drop jumps versus sled towing and their effects on repeated sprint ability in young basketball players

BACKGROUND

The aim of the investigation was to compare the occurrence of post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) after drop jumps, or heavy sled towing, and the subsequent effect on repeated sprint ability (RSA).

METHODS

Ten young basketball players (17 ± 1 yrs) performed, in randomized order, RSA test with changes of direction after a standardized warm up followed by drop jumps, heavy sled towing, or no exercise (control condition). Neuromuscular assessments composed of two maximal voluntary contractions of the knee extensors, peripheral nerve stimulation, and surface electromyography (EMG), responses were recorded before and immediately after the RSA. The EMG signal of leg muscles during sprinting were also recorded as well as the blood lactate concentration.

RESULTS

The drop jumps improved the RSA mean time (P = 0.033), total time (P = 0.031), and slowest time (P = 0.029) compared to control condition, while heavy sled towing did not change RSA outcomes (P > 0.05). All conditions exhibited a decrease of doublet high frequency stimulation force (pre-post measurement) (P = 0.023) and voluntary activation (P = 0.041), evidencing the occurrence from peripheral and central components of fatigue after RSA, respectively, but no difference was evident between-conditions. There was a significantly greater EMG activity during sprints for the biceps femoris after drop jumps, only when compared to control condition (P = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

Repeated drop jumps were effective to induce PAPE in the form of RSA, while heavy sled towing had no effect on RSA performance in young basketball players. Furthermore, both conditioning activities exhibited similar levels of fatigue following the RSA protocol. Thus, drop jumps may be used as an alternative to induce PAPE and thus improve performance during sprints in young male basketball players.

Anthropometric indicators of young basketball players aged 11-14 and 14-17 as a selection criteria of young players for basketball teams (based on the results of the “Sibur – Zenit” Basketball School program)

The Basketball School program was launched to track and support young talented basketball players in Russia under the aegis of the Russian Basketball Federation and the SIBUR gas processing company. Physical and technical conditions of players and their anthropometric indicators are monitored each year. The program covers a three-year period and is held annually in several stages. The stages include testing the physical and motor conditions of young players, field sessions with the coaches of the Russian professional basketball team, training camps for talented players and seminars for coaches of youth basketball teams. A study was conducted based on the results obtained during the testing. It was aimed to determine the periods of increase in physical qualities and motor abilities among young basketball players. The relationship between height and other anthropometric indicators was indicated, they can serve as a selection criteria for basketball teams. The results obtained can be used in the formation of training methodology for young basketball players.

Assessment of the dynamics of the physical and functional state of athletes of the highest category in the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic based on the use of digital technologies

The aim of the study was to monitor the reaction of athletes to COVID-19 and to develop a methodology for monitoring the physical and functional condition of highly qualified basketball team players in the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic. The relevance of the study lies in the fact that in professional sports today, a methodology for assessing the physical and functional state of athletes in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic is only being formed. Of particular interest is the application of digital technology, since it gives accurate and objective results. The technique developed in the course of the study can be used not only to analyze the condition of highly qualified basketball players, but also for athletes of other team sports volleyball, handball, football and others.

Impact of Match Type on Exercise Volume and Intensity of Semi-Professional Basketball Referees During a Competitive Season

Identification of the exercise volume and intensity of basketball referees, across competitive match types based on competition sex and level, would assist in developing appropriate training regimes. Purpose: The aims of this study were to quantify and compare the exercise volume and intensity encountered by semiprofessional basketball referees during different match types across a competitive season. Method: Sixteen referees participated and were monitored for absolute and relative PlayerLoad (PL) using microsensors during 25 semiprofessional matches (12 men's, 13 women's, 17 regular season, eight playoff). Comparisons between match types (men's vs. women's; regular season vs. playoff) were examined via independent t-tests or Mann-Whitney U tests, and repeated measures ANOVA with the magnitude of differences calculated via effect size. Results: Referees experienced an absolute PL of ~365 arbitrary units (AU) per match that was similar for men's, women's, regular season, and playoff matches during a competitive season. Relative PL was significantly greater (5.35 ± 0.82 vs. 4.26 ± 0.59 AU.min^-1, p < .001, effect size = 1.57) during women's matches with a greater proportion of each quarter and match spent within PL band 2 compared to men's matches (11.6 ± 2.2 vs. 8.8 ± 1.4%, p < .001, effect size = 1.53), likely due to a reduced number of referees officiating. Minimal differences existed between the regular season and playoff matches for absolute PL, relative PL, and proportion of quarter/match time within PL bands. Conclusion: The current study confirmed that referees experienced considerable exercise volume and intensity per match during a competitive season with these influenced primarily by referee configuration. The current results provide crucial information to develop effective training regimes for referees during a competitive season.

Criterion Validity of an Automated Method of Detecting Live Play Periods in Basketball

This study aimed to develop an automated method to detect live play periods from accelerometry-derived relative exercise intensity in basketball, and to assess the criterion validity of this method. Relative exercise intensity (% oxygen uptake reserve) was quantified for two men's semi-professional basketball matches. Live play period durations were automatically determined using a moving average sample window and relative exercise intensity threshold, and manually determined using annotation of video footage. The sample window duration and intensity threshold were optimised to determine the input parameters for the automated method that would result in the most similarity to the manual method. These input parameters were used to compare the automated and manual active play period durations in another men's semi-professional match and a women's professional match to assess the criterion validity of the automated method. The optimal input parameters were a 9-s sample window and relative exercise intensity threshold of 31% oxygen uptake reserve. The automated method showed good relative (ρ = 0.95–0.96 and ICC = 0.96–0.98, p < 0.01) and absolute (median bias = 0 s) agreement with the manual method. These findings support the use of an automated method using accelerometry-derived relative exercise intensity and a moving average sample window to detect live play periods in basketball.

Psychological States and Training Habits during the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown in Spanish Basketball Athletes

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting restrictions designed to slow the spread of infection greatly disrupted people’s lives. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of lockdown on the psychology, training, and sleep habits of a cohort of basketball players. An online survey involving 169 professional and amateur athletes was conducted using four validated psychological questionnaires (WLEIS-S, POMS, BRS, SMS-II) and a Likert scale to measure the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and training variables. Gender differences in fatigue (p = 0.022); friendships (p = 0.017); others’ emotional appraisal (p < 0.001); and resilience (p = 0.031) were apparent, with higher values for women in all categories bar resilience. Comparisons before and during the lockdown revealed that all participants reduced their RPE (p < 0.001); training days (p = 0.004); and training hours (p < 0.001), and experienced a decline in the quality of sleep (p < 0.001). Sleep hours (p < 0.001) increased during lockdown. The professionals and females maintained their training days (p > 0.05), while the non-professionals and males did not. Psychological states during lockdown were a predictor of the differences in training and recovery variables. In situations where training and competition are limited, it is important to develop plans to maintain physical activity, good quality sleep, and promote greater emotional management and understanding to control negative moods.

Specific Absolute Velocity Thresholds during Male Basketball Games Using Local Positional System; Differences between Age Categories

The aim of this study was (I) to establish absolute specific velocity thresholds during basketball games using local positional system (LPS) and (II) to compare the speed profiles between various levels of competitions. The variables recorded were total distance (TD); meters per minute (m·min); real time (min); maximum speed (Km h−1), distance (m), percentage distance, and percentage duration invested in four speed zones (standing–walking; jogging; running; and high-speed running). Mean and standard deviation (±SD) were calculated, and a separate one-way analysis of variance was undertaken to identify differences between competitions. TD (3188.84 ± 808.37 m) is covered by standing–walking (43.51%), jogging (36.58%), running (14.68%), and sprinting (5.23%) activities. Overall, 75.22% of the time is invested standing–walking, jogging (18.43%), running (4.77%), and sprinting (1.89%). M·min (large effect size), % duration zone 2 (moderate effect size); distance zone 4 (large effect size), and % distance zone 4 (very large effect size) are significantly higher during junior than senior. However, % distance zone 1 (large effect size) and % duration zone 1 (large effect size) were largely higher during senior competition. The findings of this study reveal that most of the distance and play time is spent during walking and standing activities. In addition, the proportion of time spent at elevated intensities is higher during junior than in senior competition.

Assessing the External Load Associated With High-Intensity Activities Recorded During Official Basketball Games

Load monitoring in basketball is fundamental to develop training programs, maximizing performance while reducing injury risk. However, information regarding the load associated with specific activity patterns during competition is limited. This study aimed at assessing the external load associated with high-intensity activities recorded during official basketball games, with respect to different (1) activity patterns, (2) playing positions, and (3) activities performed with or without ball. Eleven male basketball players (six backcourt, five frontcourt, age: 20.5 ± 1.1 years, stature: 191.5 ± 8.7 cm, body mass: 86.5 ± 11.3 kg; experience: 8.5 ± 2.4 years) competing in the Lithuanian third division were recruited for this study. Three in-season games were assessed via time-motion analysis and microsensors. Specifically, the high-intensity activities including sprints, high-intensity specific movements (HSM) and jumps were identified and subsequently the external load [PlayerLoad™ (PL) and PlayerLoad™/min (PL/min)] of each activity was determined. Linear mixed models were used to examine differences in PL, PL/min and mean duration between activity pattern, playing positions and activities performed with or without ball. Results revealed PL was lower in jumps compared to sprints [p < 0.001, effect size (ES) = 0.68] and HSMs (p < 0.001, ES = 0.58), while PL/min was greater in sprints compared to jumps (p = 0.023, ES = 0.22). Jumps displayed shorter duration compared to sprints (p < 0.001, ES = 1.10) and HSMs (p < 0.001, ES = 0.81), with HSMs lasting longer than sprints (p = 0.002, ES = 0.17). Jumps duration was longer in backcourt than frontcourt players (p < 0.001, ES = 0.33). When considering activity patterns combined, PL (p < 0.001, ES = 0.28) and duration (p < 0.001, ES = 0.43) were greater without ball. Regarding HSMs, PL/min was higher with ball (p = 0.036, ES = 0.14), while duration was longer without ball (p < 0.001, ES = 0.34). The current findings suggest that external load differences in high-intensity activities exist among activity patterns and between activities performed with and without ball, while no differences were found between playing positions. Practitioners should consider these differences when designing training sessions.

Effect of Player Role and Competition Level on Player Demands in Basketball

This study compared basketball training and match demands between player roles (starters, in-rotation bench players, out-rotation bench players) and between competition levels (semi-professional, professional). Thirty-seven players from one professional women's team, one semi-professional women's team, and one semi-professional men's team wore accelerometers during training and matches throughout a competitive season. All teams were used for player role comparisons and the women's teams were used to compare competition levels. Match and training session average intensity and volume, and durations of relative exercise intensities (inactive, light, moderate-vigorous, maximal, supramaximal) were calculated. Compared to out-rotation bench players, starters experienced twice the average match intensity and volume, spent 50% less match time being inactive, and spent 1.7-4.2× more match time in all other activity categories (p < 0.01). Compared to in-rotation bench players, starters experienced 1.2× greater average match intensity and volume, spent 17% less match time being inactive, and spent 1.4-1.5× more match time performing moderate-vigorous and maximal activity (p < 0.01). No differences in match demands were found between women's competition levels, however the professional team experienced double the cumulative weekly training volume of the semi-professional team and spent 1.6-2.1× more cumulative weekly time in all activity categories (p < 0.01). To improve performance and reduce injury risk, players should prepare for the greatest match demands they could encounter during a season while considering potential changes to their role. Additionally, players might need their training volume managed when transitioning from a semi-professional to a professional season to reduce the injury risk from sharp increases in training demands.

The Business End of the Season: A Comparison Between Playoff and Regular-Season Workloads in Professional Basketball Players

PURPOSE

To quantify and compare the internal workloads experienced during the playoffs and regular season in basketball.

METHODS

A total of 10 professional male basketball players competing in the Italian first division were monitored during the final 6 weeks of the regular season and the entire 6-week playoff phase. Internal workload was quantified using the session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) method for all training sessions and games. A 2-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (day type × period) was utilized to assess differences in daily s-RPE between game days, days within 24 hours of games, and days >24 hours from games during the playoffs and regular season. Comparisons in weekly training, game, and total workloads were made between the playoffs and regular season using paired t tests and effect sizes.

RESULTS

A significant interaction between day and competitive period for s-RPE was found (P = .003, moderate). Lower s-RPE was apparent during playoff and regular-season days within 24 hours of games than all other days (P < .001, very large). Furthermore, s-RPE across days >24 hours from playoff games was different than all other days (P ≤ .01, moderate-very large). Weekly training (P = .009, very large) and total (P < .001, moderate) s-RPE were greater during the regular season than playoffs, whereas weekly game s-RPE was greater during the playoffs than the regular season (P < .001, very large).

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents an exploratory investigation of internal workload during the playoffs in professional basketball. Players experienced greater training and total weekly workloads during the regular season than during the playoffs with similar daily game workloads between periods.

Gender-Specific Association of the Sprint Mechanical Properties With Change of Direction Performance in Basketball

ABSTRACT

Baena-Raya, A, Jiménez-Reyes, P, Romea, ES, Soriano-Maldonado, A, and Rodríguez-Pérez, MA. Gender-specific association of the sprint mechanical properties with change of direction performance in basketball. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-We evaluated the gender-specific associations between the mechanical variables derived from the horizontal force-velocity (FV) profile (i.e., theoretical maximal force [F0], velocity [V0], maximal power output [Pmax], peak ratio of the effective horizontal component [RFpeak], and the force application technique index [DRF]) and the change of direction (COD) performance for basketball players. Seventy-one players (23 women and 48 men) were assessed for the horizontal FV profile and COD using the modified 505 and V-cut tests. The FV profile parameters were significantly higher for the men than those for the women. The F0, RFpeak, and Pmax were strongly associated with performance in the 505 test (women rrange = -0.72 to -0.82; men: rrange = -0.67 to -0.75; p < 0.001) and the V-cut test (women rrange = -0.68 to -0.76; men rrange = -0.45 to -0.50; p < 0.001), as well as with a lower COD deficit (women rrange = 0.58 to 0.75 (p < 0.01); men rrange = 0.49 to 0.54; all p < 0.001). For the women, a 1 N·kg-1 increase of the F0 was associated with -0.20 seconds and -0.56 seconds in the 505 and V-cut tests, respectively, and 0.16 seconds for the COD deficit. In the men, it was associated with -0.13 seconds and -0.37 seconds in the 505 and V-cut tests, respectively, and 0.10 seconds for the COD deficit. F0, RFpeak, and Pmax are the most determinant sprint mechanical properties to successfully COD and reduce the COD deficit. The horizontal FV profile assessment is recommended for diagnosing and prescribing a training program for basketball players.

Single and Combined Effect of Acute Sleep Restriction and Mental Fatigue on Basketball Free-Throw Performance

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the single and combined effects of sleep restriction (SR) and mental fatigue (MF) on free-throw (FT) performance among adult male basketball players.

METHODS

A total of 19 amateur male basketball players performed, in a randomized, counterbalanced, and crossover order, 2 identical experimental sessions separated by an interval of 1 week. The difference between the 2 sessions was in the quantity of sleep the night before the sessions, as follows: in one case, the participants followed their habitual sleep-wake routines; in the other session, they were forced to sleep not more than 5 hours. During the experimental sessions, the participants performed 60 basketball FTs on 2 occasions, separated by watching a basketball tactical video for 30 minutes designed to induce MF. As such, the FT test was completed in 4 different conditions: control, MF, SR, and SR and MF combined.

RESULTS

The participants registered a significantly lower total sleep time in acute SR (P < .001). The subjective rating of MF was lower in the control than in MF, SR, and SR and MF combined (P < .001). There were no differences between conditions for the subjective ratings of motivation. FT accuracy was higher in the control than in MF, SR, and SR and MF combined (P = .010), while no differences were observed between the 3 experimental conditions (all P > .05).

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that a combined effect of MF and SR induces a small reduction in basketball FT performance, similar to MF or SR alone.

Measuring Physical Demands in Basketball: An Explorative Systematic Review of Practices

BACKGROUND

Measuring the physical work and resultant acute psychobiological responses of basketball can help to better understand and inform physical preparation models and improve overall athlete health and performance. Recent advancements in training load monitoring solutions have coincided with increases in the literature describing the physical demands of basketball, but there are currently no reviews that summarize all the available basketball research. Additionally, a thorough appraisal of the load monitoring methodologies and measures used in basketball is lacking in the current literature. This type of critical analysis would allow for consistent comparison between studies to better understand physical demands across the sport.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this systematic review was to assess and critically evaluate the methods and technologies used for monitoring physical demands in competitive basketball athletes. We used the term 'training load' to encompass the physical demands of both training and game activities, with the latter assumed to provide a training stimulus as well. This review aimed to critique methodological inconsistencies, establish operational definitions specific to the sport, and make recommendations for basketball training load monitoring practice and reporting within the literature.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed using EBSCO, PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science to identify studies through March 2020. Electronic databases were searched using terms related to basketball and training load. Records were included if they used a competitive basketball population and incorporated a measure of training load. This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO Registration # CRD42019123603), and approved under the National Basketball Association (NBA) Health Related Research Policy.

RESULTS

Electronic and manual searches identified 122 papers that met the inclusion criteria. These studies reported the physical demands of basketball during training (n = 56), competition (n = 36), and both training and competition (n = 30). Physical demands were quantified with a measure of internal training load (n = 52), external training load (n = 29), or both internal and external measures (n = 41). These studies examined males (n = 76), females (n = 34), both male and female (n = 9), and a combination of youth (i.e. under 18 years, n = 37), adults (i.e. 18 years or older, n = 77), and both adults and youth (n = 4). Inconsistencies related to the reporting of competition level, methodology for recording duration, participant inclusion criteria, and validity of measurement systems were identified as key factors relating to the reporting of physical demands in basketball and summarized for each study.

CONCLUSIONS

This review comprehensively evaluated the current body of literature related to training load monitoring in basketball. Within this literature, there is a clear lack of alignment in applied practices and methodological framework, and with only small data sets and short study periods available at this time, it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions about the true physical demands of basketball. A detailed understanding of modern technologies in basketball is also lacking, and we provide specific guidelines for defining and applying duration measurement methodologies, vetting the validity and reliability of measurement tools, and classifying competition level in basketball to address some of the identified knowledge gaps. Creating alignment in best-practice basketball research methodology, terminology and reporting may lead to a more robust understanding of the physical demands associated with the sport, thereby allowing for exploration of other research areas (e.g. injury, performance), and improved understanding and decision making in applying these methods directly with basketball athletes.

Workload and well-being across games played on consecutive days during in-season phase in basketball players

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to quantify and compare workload and well-being across basketball games played on consecutive days during the in-season phase.

METHODS

Seven players (mean [SD]: age, 20.8 [1.6] y; stature, 195.0 [5.4] cm; body mass, 88.3 [4.2] kg; training experience, 11.6 [3.7] y) competing in the second-tier Lithuanian league were recruited. Changes in workload and well-being were monitored across six NKL games in three separate weeks during the in-season phase, with two games per week played on Friday (Day 1) and Saturday (Day 2). External workload was determined as PlayerLoad (PL) and PL per minute (PL/min) via microsensors. Internal workload was determined as percentage of maximum heart rate (%HRmax), summated heart rate zones (SHRZ) workload, and session-rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) workload. Well-being was evaluated using questionnaires assessing fatigue, sleep quality, general muscle soreness, stress levels and mood. Linear mixed models and effect size analyses were used to compare workload and well-being between Day 1 and Day 2.

RESULTS

Significantly lower PL/min (P=0.029; ES=0.26, small), greater perception of fatigue (P<0.001; ES=1.31, large) and lower total well-being score (P<0.001; ES=0.59, small) were observed for basketball games played on Day 2 compared to games played on Day 1.

CONCLUSIONS

Two games played on consecutive days elicited similar game workloads with higher perceived fatigue and lower well-being in the second game day. These findings suggest basketball coaches using recovery strategies to optimize player well-being during congested game schedules.

Dribble Deficit quantifies dribbling speed independently of sprinting speed and differentiates between age categories in pre-adolescent basketball players

The aims of this study were to a) quantify the relationships between sprinting and dribbling speed measured using dribble time and Dribble Deficit and b) assess the difference between age categories in sprinting and dribbling speed in pre-adolescent basketball players. Pre-adolescent, male basketball players (Total, N = 81; Under-10, n = 32, Under-9, n = 49) completed two trials of different tasks including 20-m linear sprints without dribbling, 20-m linear sprints dribbling with dominant and non-dominant hands, and change-of-direction (COD) sprints with and without dribbling. Sprinting time, dribbling time and Dribble Deficit were then calculated for each trial. Spearman rank correlations were used to assess the relationships between outcome measures for Under-9 and Under-10 players separately and combined. The Mann-Whitney U test with effect sizes (ES) was used to assess differences in outcome measures between Under-9 and Under-10 players. Moderate-to-very large significant relationships (p <0.05) between linear and COD sprinting time and dribbling time using dominant and non-dominant hands were found in Under-9, Under-10 and all players combined. Trivial-to-moderate relationships were found between sprinting time and Dribble Deficit in all age categories across linear and COD paths. Quicker performance times (p <0.05) were found for Under-10 compared to Under-9 players in all outcome measures (ES: small-to-moderate), except for COD sprinting time (p >0.05; ES: small). Dribble Deficit measures dribbling speed independently of sprinting speed across linear and COD paths in pre-adolescent basketball players and differentiates between age categories.

Accelerometry as a method for external workload monitoring in invasion team sports. A systematic review

Accelerometry is a recent method used to quantify workload in team sports. A rapidly increasing number of studies supports the practical implementation of accelerometry monitoring to regulate and optimize training schemes. Therefore, the purposes of this study were: (1) to reflect the current state of knowledge about accelerometry as a method of workload monitoring in invasion team sports according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and (2) to conclude recommendations for application and scientific investigations. The Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for relevant published studies according to the following keywords: "accelerometry" or "accelerometer" or "microtechnology" or "inertial devices", and "load" or "workload", and "sport". Of the 1383 studies initially identified, 118 were selected for a full review. The main results indicate that the most frequent findings were (i) devices' body location: scapulae; (b) devices brand: Catapult Sports; (iii) variables: PlayerLoadTM and its variations; (iv) sports: rugby, Australian football, soccer and basketball; (v) sex: male; (vi) competition level: professional and elite; and (vii) context: separate training or competition. A great number of variables and devices from various companies make the comparability between findings difficult; unification is required. Although the most common location is at scapulae because of its optimal signal reception for time-motion analysis, new methods for multi-location skills and locomotion assessment without losing tracking accuracy should be developed.

Determining the relationship between load markers and non-contact injuries during the competitive season among professional and semi-professional basketball players

This study examined the association and predictive ability of internal load markers (based on rating of perceived exertion, RPE) with non-contact injuries in basketball. 35 basketball players (age: 24 ± 6 years, stature: 196 ± 9 cm, body mass: 91 ± 12 kg) were prospectively followed during 1 or 2 seasons, during which non-contact injuries were recorded. Markers examined were: mean weekly RPE, weekly load, exposure, week-to-week load change, acute:chronic 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 load ratio. A generalized estimating equations analysis was used to determine association with non-contact injury in the subsequent week. Prediction was examined with receiver operating characteristic curve, area under the curve (AUC) and Youden index. No associations were found between load markers and non-contact injuries (all p > 0.05); load markers showed no injury predictive ability (AUC range: 0.468-537; Youden index range: 0.019-132). In conclusion, the load markers selected are not associated with non-contact injuries and they cannot be used to predict injuries in basketball.

Combined Effect of Number of Players and Dribbling on Game-Based-Drill Demands in Basketball

PURPOSE

To examine the physiological, physical, and technical demands of game-based drills (GBDs) with regular dribble (RD) or no dribble (ND) involving a different number of players (3 vs 3, 4 vs 4, and 5 vs 5).

METHODS

Ten regional-level male basketball players performed 6 full-court GBD formats (each consisting of 3 bouts of 4 min and 2 min rest) on multiple occasions. The physiological and perceptual responses were measured through heart rate and rating of perceived exertion. Video-based time-motion analysis was performed to assess the GBD physical demands. The frequencies of occurrence and the duration were calculated for high-intensity, moderate-intensity, low-intensity, and recovery activities. Technical demands were assessed with a notional-analysis technique. A 2-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to assess statistical differences between GBD formats.

RESULTS

A greater perceptual response (rating of perceived exertion) was recorded during 3 versus 3 than 5 versus 5 formats (P = .005). Significant interactions were observed for the number of recovery (P = .021), low-intensity activity (P = .007), and all movements (P = .001) completed. Greater time was spent performing low-intensity and high-intensity activities during RD than ND format. Greater technical demands were observed for several variables during 3 versus 3 than 4 versus 4 or 5 versus 5. A greater number of turnovers (P = .027), total (P ≤ .001), and correct passes (P ≤ .001) were recorded during ND than RD format.

CONCLUSIONS

The number of players predominantly affected the perceptual response to GBD, while both the number of players and rule modification (RD vs ND) affected activities performed during GBD. Reducing the number of players increases the GBD technical elements, while ND format promotes a greater number of turnovers and passes.

Influence of ball possession and playing position on the physical demands encountered during professional basketball games

Understanding the game demands encountered in basketball provides useful insight for developing specific, individualized and team-based training sessions. This study quantified and compared the game activity demands encountered by basketball players of different playing positions: i) strictly when in possession of the ball and ii) overall during live playing time (irrespective of ball possession). The activity demands encountered by 44 (22 guards, 14 forwards, 8 centres) adult, professional, male basketball players were assessed across 10 official games. Time-motion analysis was used to determine the frequency and proportion (%) of playing time performing recovery (REC), low- (LIA), moderate- (MIA), and high- (HIA) intensity activities. Linear mixed models were constructed to examine differences in dependent variables between playing positions, accounting for repeated measures. Guards, forwards, and centres spent 11.9±5.9%, 3.5±1.3%, and 2.9±1.1% of live playing time in possession of the ball, respectively. Guards performed more activities at all intensities (total movements, REC, LIA, MIA, and HIA) than forwards (P < 0.05) and centres (P < 0.05) when in possession of the ball. The proportion of time spent performing HIA in possession of the ball was greater for forwards (P = 0.001) and centres (P = 0.001) than guards. During live playing time overall across games, centres performed more HIA per minute (P = 0.049) and spent a greater proportion of time performing HIA (P = 0.047) than guards. Activities performed when in possession of the ball and during live playing time across basketball games are affected by playing position. These data highlight the need to develop position-specific training drills, particularly with ball possession.

A Systematic Review of the External and Internal Workloads Experienced During Games-Based Drills in Basketball Players

PURPOSE

To systematically quantify the external and internal workloads reported during games-based drills in basketball and identify the effects of different modifiable factors on the workloads encountered.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched for original research published up until January 2, 2019. The search included terms relevant to workload, games-based drills, and basketball. Studies were screened using predefined selection criteria, and methodological quality was assessed prior to data extraction.

RESULTS

The electronic search yielded 8,284 studies with 3,411 duplicates. A total of 17 studies met the inclusion criteria for this review, with quality scores ranging from 9 to 10 out of 11. Factors regularly modified during games-based drills among the included studies were team size, playing area, playing and rest time, and game alterations. Games-based drills containing smaller team sizes elicited greater external and internal workloads compared to larger team sizes. Furthermore, full-court games-based drills elicited greater external and internal workloads compared to half-court drills, while continuous games-based drills elicited greater internal workloads compared to intermittent drills.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides a comprehensive collation of data indicating the external and internal workloads reported during different games-based drills in various samples of basketball players. Furthermore, evidence is provided for basketball coaches to consider when prescribing games-based drills and modifying factors during drills across the season. Current literature suggests that smaller team sizes and full-court playing areas elicit greater external and internal workloads than larger team sizes and half-court drills, respectively. Furthermore, continuous games-based drills elicit greater internal workloads than intermittent drills.

Seasonal changes in physical capacities of basketball players according to competitive levels and individual responses

Purpose

The aim of this study was to quantify changes in physical capacities of thirty-eight basketball players selected from different teams, as well as from varying competitive levels (i.e. Division I, Division II and Division III) during the preparation and in-season periods.

Methods

Pre (T1) and post (T2) preparation period and during regular season (T3), the players completed a Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test—level 1. Following a 3 to 8 days-break, players performed a 6-min continuous running test (Mognoni’s test), a counter-movement jump test and a 5-min high-intensity intermittent running test.

Results

Blood lactate concentration measured after the Mognoni’s test was significantly reduced from T1 to T2, and from T2 to T3 (P<0.001, ƞ² = 0.424). The distance covered during the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test was significantly increased only from T1 to T2 in Division II and III (P<0.001, ƞ² = 0.789). Similarly, the physiological responses to high-intensity intermittent running test were improved only from T1 to T2 (all P<0.001, ƞ² = 0.495 to 0.652). Despite significant changes observed in running tests from T1 to T2, at individual level 35–55% of players did not show a very likely improvement. Relative peak power produced during vertical jumps at T3 by Division I players was increased compared to T1 (ANOVA interaction, P = 0.037, ƞ² = 0.134).

Conclusions

The main improvements in physical capacities occurred during the preparation period, when the aerobic fitness and the ability to sustain high-intensity intermittent efforts were moderately-to-largely improved. However, it appears that the preparation period does not consistently impact on vertical jump variables. Aerobic fitness and force/power production during vertical jumps appear to improve across the competitive season (slightly-to-moderately). Physical tests should be used to identify weaknesses in physical performance of players and to monitor their fatigue status, with the aim to develop individualized training programs.

Training load and match-play demands in basketball based on competition level: A systematic review

Basketball is a court-based team-sport that requires a broad array of demands (physiological, mechanical, technical, tactical) in training and competition which makes it important for practitioners to understand the stress imposed on the basketball player during practice and match-play. Therefore, the main aim of the present systematic review is to investigate the training and match-play demands of basketball in elite, sub-elite, and youth competition. A search of five electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Cochrane) was conducted until December 20^th, 2019. Articles were included if the study: (i) was published in English; (ii) contained internal or external load variables from basketball training and/or competition; and (iii) reported physiological or metabolic demands of competition or practice. Additionally, studies were classified according to the type of study participants into elite (20), sub-elite (9), and youth (6). A total of 35 articles were included in the systematic review. Results indicate that higher-level players seem to be more efficient while moving on-court. When compared to sub-elite and youth, elite players cover less distance at lower average velocities and with lower maximal and average heart rate during competition. However, elite-level players have a greater bandwidth to express higher velocity movements. From the present systematic review, it seems that additional investigation on this topic is warranted before a “clear picture” can be drawn concerning the acceleration and deceleration demands of training and competition. It is necessary to accurately and systematically assess competition demands to provide appropriate training strategies that resemble match-play.

Comparing the External Loads Encountered during Competition between Elite, Junior Male and Female Basketball Players

The aim of the present study was to compare external loads (EL) between elite, junior, male and female basketball players. Male (n = 25) and female players (n = 48) were monitored during 11 competitive matches (3 matches per team). EL was measured using local positioning system and microsensor technology to determine total, high-intensity (14–21 km·h⁻¹), and sprint (>21 km·h⁻¹) distance (m) covered, total (n) and relative (n·min⁻¹) accelerations and decelerations, ratio of accelerations:decelerations, and total (arbitrary units [AU]) and relative (AU·min⁻¹) player load. EL was compared between sexes overall and according to each playing position (guards, forwards, and centers). Males covered larger (p < 0.05) high-intensity and sprint distances, and completed more (p < 0.05) decelerations than females; while female players experienced a greater (p < 0.05) ratio of accelerations:decelerations. Greater decelerations (p < 0.05) were observed for males in the guard position compared to females, while more (p < 0.05) accelerations·min⁻¹ were apparent for females in the forward position compared to males. The current findings indicate differences in EL, particularly the high-intensity and acceleratory demands, exist between elite, junior, male and female basketball players during competition and are affected by playing position. These outcomes can be used in developing sex- and position-specific training plans, and in turn improving the physical preparedness of junior basketball players for competition demands at the elite level.