Glucagon-induced extracellular cAMP regulates hepatic lipid metabolism

The influence of interleukin-27 on metabolic fitness in a murine neonatal model of bacterial sepsis

Human neonates are predisposed to an increased risk of mortality from infection due to fundamental differences in the framework of innate and adaptive immune responses relative to those in the adult population. As one key difference in neonates, an increase in the immunosuppressive cytokine, IL-27, is responsible for poor outcomes in a murine neonatal model of bacterial sepsis. In our model, the absence of IL-27 signaling during infection is associated with improved maintenance of body mass, increased bacterial clearance with reduced systemic inflammation, and decreased mortality rates that correlate to preservation of glucose homeostasis and insulin production. To further elucidate the mechanisms associated with IL-27 signaling and metabolic fitness, we analyzed global transcriptomes from spleen, liver, pancreas, and hindlimb muscle during Escherichia coli-induced sepsis in wild-type (WT) and IL-27Rα-deficient (KO) mice. Metabolically important tissues such as the liver, pancreas, and hindlimb muscle exhibit a shift in differential gene expression of pathways involved in oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipid metabolism, and fatty acid β oxidation. The hindlimb muscle of KO pups demonstrated a significant reduction in all of these pathways during infection. The KO liver showed a significant down-regulation in gluconeogenesis and glycolytic pathways. Collectively, these findings suggest a negative influence of IL-27 on the metabolic profile during early-life infection. This is an important consideration for antagonization of IL-27 as a potential host-directed therapeutic opportunity as our findings point to an overall improvement in infectious disease parameters and metabolic fitness.NEW & NOTEWORTHY IL-27 has been linked with immune regulation during infection, but this is the first report of a combined influence of IL-27 on complete host response during systemic infection with metabolic fitness in a neonate. Novel findings demonstrate improved glucose homeostasis and insulin response supported by a reduced expression of genes involved in gluconeogenesis in the absence of IL-27 signaling. An increased expression of genes integral to cholesterol biosynthesis further supports a protective response during sepsis.

The Anti-Diabetic Effect of Non-Starch Polysaccharides Extracted from Wheat Beer on Diet/STZ-Induced Diabetic Mice

Diabetes mellitus (DM), a major cause of mortality, is characterized by insulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction. The increasing prevalence of DM is linked to lifestyle changes and there is a need for alternative approaches to conventional oral hypoglycemic agents. Polysaccharides, particularly non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs), have been identified as promising hypoglycemic agents. Cereals, especially wheat, are key sources of dietary polysaccharides, with NSPs derived from wheat beer attracting significant interest. This study aimed to investigate the hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of NSPs extracted from wheat beer in STZ-induced diabetic C57BL/6J male mice. The results showed that NSPs extract positively influenced blood glucose regulation, lipid profiles, and liver and kidney functions, by attenuating liver AST and kidney CRE levels in a dose-dependent manner. The NSPs demonstrated anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, potentially providing significant benefits in managing diabetes and its complications. Moreover, the study revealed the histoprotective effects of NSPs on the liver and pancreas, reducing lipid deposition, necrosis, and inflammation. These findings highlight the multifaceted advantages of NSPs and suggest their potential as effective agents in diabetes management. This study supports the need for further research into the therapeutic potential of NSPs and their application in developing innovative treatments for diabetes and its associated complications.

Maternal nutrient metabolism in the liver during pregnancy

The liver plays pivotal roles in nutrient metabolism, and correct hepatic adaptations are required in maternal nutrient metabolism during pregnancy. In this review, hepatic nutrient metabolism, including glucose metabolism, lipid and cholesterol metabolism, and protein and amino acid metabolism, is first addressed. In addition, recent progress on maternal hepatic adaptations in nutrient metabolism during pregnancy is discussed. Finally, the factors that regulate hepatic nutrient metabolism during pregnancy are highlighted, and the factors include follicle-stimulating hormone, estrogen, progesterone, insulin-like growth factor 1, prostaglandins fibroblast growth factor 21, serotonin, growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, melatonin, adrenal hormone, leptin, glucagon-like peptide-1, insulin glucagon and thyroid hormone. Our vision is that more attention should be paid to liver nutrient metabolism during pregnancy, which will be helpful for utilizing nutrient appropriately and efficiently, and avoiding liver diseases during pregnancy.

Mechanisms of hepatic fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis during fasting

Fasting is part of many weight management and health-boosting regimens. Fasting causes substantial metabolic adaptations in the liver that include the stimulation of fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis. The induction of fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis during fasting is mainly driven by interrelated changes in plasma levels of various hormones and an increase in plasma nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) levels and is mediated transcriptionally by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)α, supported by CREB3L3 (cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3 like 3). Compared with men, women exhibit higher ketone levels during fasting, likely due to higher NEFA availability, suggesting that the metabolic response to fasting shows sexual dimorphism. Here, we synthesize the current molecular knowledge on the impact of fasting on hepatic fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis.

George M, Tan A, Chrisler EA, Izumo M, Takahashi JS, Rao MC, Leone VA, Chang EB. Gut microbes and the liver circadian clock partition glucose and lipid metabolism

Circadian rhythms govern glucose homeostasis, and their dysregulation leads to complex metabolic diseases. Gut microbes exhibit diurnal rhythms that influence host circadian networks and metabolic processes, yet underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we showed hierarchical, bidirectional communication among the liver circadian clock, gut microbes, and glucose homeostasis in mice. To assess this relationship, we utilized mice with liver-specific deletion of the core circadian clock gene Bmal1 via Albumin-cre maintained in either conventional or germ-free housing conditions. The liver clock, but not the forebrain clock, required gut microbes to drive glucose clearance and gluconeogenesis. Liver clock dysfunctionality expanded proportions and abundances of oscillating microbial features by 2-fold relative to that in controls. The liver clock was the primary driver of differential and rhythmic hepatic expression of glucose and fatty acid metabolic pathways. Absent the liver clock, gut microbes provided secondary cues that dampened these rhythms, resulting in reduced lipid fuel utilization relative to carbohydrates. All together, the liver clock transduced signals from gut microbes that were necessary for regulating glucose and lipid metabolism and meeting energy demands over 24 hours.

Protein Targeting to Glycogen (PTG): A Promising Player in Glucose and Lipid Metabolism

Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are widely considered to be the key regulatory factors of cell function, and are often referred to as "molecular switches" in the regulation of cell metabolic processes. A large number of studies have shown that the phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of related signal molecules plays a key role in the regulation of liver glucose and lipid metabolism. As a new therapeutic strategy for metabolic diseases, the potential of using inhibitor-based therapies to fight diabetes has gained scientific momentum. PTG, a protein phosphatase, also known as glycogen targeting protein, is a member of the protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) family. It can play a role by catalyzing the dephosphorylation of phosphorylated protein molecules, especially regulating many aspects of glucose and lipid metabolism. In this review, we briefly summarize the role of PTG in glucose and lipid metabolism, and update its role in metabolic regulation, with special attention to glucose homeostasis and lipid metabolism.

Important Hormones Regulating Lipid Metabolism

There is a wide variety of kinds of lipids, and complex structures which determine the diversity and complexity of their functions. With the basic characteristic of water insolubility, lipid molecules are independent of the genetic information composed by genes to proteins, which determine the particularity of lipids in the human body, with water as the basic environment and genes to proteins as the genetic system. In this review, we have summarized the current landscape on hormone regulation of lipid metabolism. After the well-studied PI3K-AKT pathway, insulin affects fat synthesis by controlling the activity and production of various transcription factors. New mechanisms of thyroid hormone regulation are discussed, receptor α and β may mediate different procedures, the effect of thyroid hormone on mitochondria provides a new insight for hormones regulating lipid metabolism. Physiological concentration of adrenaline induces the expression of extrapituitary prolactin in adipose tissue macrophages, which promotes fat weight loss. Manipulation of hormonal action has the potential to offer a new therapeutic horizon for the global burden of obesity and its associated complications such as morbidity and mortality.

Molecular and cellular biology of PCSK9: impact on glucose homeostasis

Proprotein convertase substilisin/kexin 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors (PCSK9i) revolutionised the lipid-lowering therapy. However, a risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is evoked under PCSK9i therapy. In this review, we summarise the current knowledge on the link of PCSK9 with T2DM. A significant correlation was found between PCSK9 and insulin, homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) of insulin resistance and glycated haemoglobin. PCSK9 is also involved in inflammation. PCSK9 loss-of-function variants increased T2DM risk by altering insulin secretion. Local pancreatic low PCSK9 regulates β-cell LDLR expression which in turn promotes intracellular cholesterol accumulation and hampers insulin secretion. Nevertheless, the association of PCSK9 loss-of-function variants and T2DM is inconsistent. InsLeu and R46L polymorphisms were associated with T2DM, low HOMA for β-cell function and impaired fasting glucose, while the C679X polymorphism was associated with low fasting glucose in Black South African people. Hence, we assume that the impact of these variants on glucose homeostasis may vary depending on the genetic background of the studied populations and the type of effect caused by those genetic variants on the PCSK9 protein. Accordingly, these factors should be considered when choosing a genetic variant of PCSK9 to assess the impact of long-term use of PCSK9i on glucose homeostasis.

Emerging Role of cAMP/AMPK Signaling

The 5′-Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a natural energy sensor in mammalian cells that plays a key role in cellular and systemic energy homeostasis. At the cellular level, AMPK supports numerous processes required for energy and redox homeostasis, including mitochondrial biogenesis, autophagy, and glucose and lipid metabolism. Thus, understanding the pathways regulating AMPK activity is crucial for developing strategies to treat metabolic disorders. Mounting evidence suggests the presence of a link between cyclic AMP (cAMP) and AMPK signaling. cAMP signaling is known to be activated in circumstances of physiological and metabolic stress due to the release of stress hormones, such as adrenaline and glucagon, which is followed by activation of membrane-bound adenylyl cyclase and elevation of cellular cAMP. Because the majority of physiological stresses are associated with elevated energy consumption, it is not surprising that activation of cAMP signaling may promote AMPK activity. Aside from the physiological role of the cAMP/AMPK axis, numerous reports have suggested its role in several pathologies, including inflammation, ischemia, diabetes, obesity, and aging. Furthermore, novel reports have provided more mechanistic insight into the regulation of the cAMP/AMPK axis. In particular, the role of distinct cAMP microdomains generated by soluble adenylyl cyclase in regulating basal and induced AMPK activity has recently been demonstrated. In the present review, we discuss current advances in the understanding of the regulation of the cAMP/AMPK axis and its role in cellular homeostasis and explore some translational aspects.

Modulation of Cyclic AMP Levels in Fallopian Tube Cells by Natural and Environmental Estrogens

Autocrine/paracrine factors generated in response to 17β-estradiol (E2) within the fallopian tube (FT) facilitate fertilization and early embryo development for implantation. Since cyclic AMP (cAMP) plays a key role in reproduction, regulation of its synthesis by E2 may be of biological/pathophysiological relevance. Herein, we investigated whether cAMP production in FT cells (FTCs) is regulated by E2 and environmental estrogens (EE’s; xenoestrogens and phytoestrogens). Under basal conditions, low levels of extracellular cAMP were detectable in bovine FTCs (epithelial cells and fibroblasts; 1:1 ratio). Treatment of FTCs with forskolin (AC; adenylyl cyclase activator), isoproterenol (β-adrenoceptor agonist) and IBMX (phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor) dramatically (>10 fold) increased cAMP; whereas LRE1 (sAC; soluble AC inhibitor) and 2’,5’-dideoxyadenosine (DDA; transmembrane AC (tmAC)) inhibitor decreased cAMP. Comparable changes in basal and stimulated intracellular cAMP were also observed. Ro-20-1724 (PDE-IV inhibitor), but not milrinone (PDE-III inhibitor) nor mmIBMX (PDE-I inhibitor), augmented forskolin-stimulated cAMP levels, suggesting that PDE-IV dominates in FTCs. E2 increased cAMP levels and CREB phosphorylation in FTCs, and these effects were mimicked by EE’s (genistein, 4-hydroxy-2’,4’,6’-trichlorobiphenyl, 4-hydroxy-2’,4’,6’-dichlorobiphenyl). Moreover, the effects of E2 and EE were blocked by the tmAC inhibitor DDA, but not by the ERα/β antagonist ICI182780. Moreover, BAPTA-AM (intracellular-Ca²⁺ chelator) abrogated the effects of E2, but not genistein, on cAMP suggesting differential involvement of Ca²⁺. Treatment with non-permeable E2-BSA induced cAMP levels and CREB-phosphorylation; moreover, the stimulatory effects of E2 and EEs on cAMP were blocked by G15, a G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) antagonist. E2 and IBMX induced cAMP formation was inhibited by LRE1 and DDA suggesting involvement of both tmAC and sAC. Our results provide the first evidence that in FTCs, E2 and EE’s stimulate cAMP synthesis via GPER. Exposure of the FT to EE’s and PDE inhibitors may result in abnormal non-cyclic induction of cAMP levels which may induce deleterious effects on reproduction.

Associations between SNP83 of phosphodiesterase 4D gene and carotid atherosclerosis in a southern Chinese Han population: a case-control study

Atherosclerosis was an important pathophysiological basis of atherothrombotic stroke, and phosphodiesterase 4D (PDE4D) polymorphism (SNP83/rs966221) was reported to be associated with the susceptibility to atherothrombotic stroke. Aim of the present study was to explore the potential association between SNP83 and carotid atherosclerosis (CAS). 204 southern Chinese Han participants were divided into two groups according to the carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) of the carotid artery: CAS group (carotid IMT ≥ 1.0 mm) and non-CAS group (carotid IMT < 1.0 mm). Carotid IMT was measured by color Doppler ultrasound. The PDE4D SNP83 polymorphism was determined by SNaPshot technique. Our study found that SNP83 was associated significantly with CAS susceptibility under the dominant, overdominant and codominant models. After adjusting for age, gender, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, Hemoglobin A1c, cigarette smoking, hypertension history, and diabetes mellitus history, the association still remained significant (dominant model: crude OR = 2.373, 95% CI: 1.268-4.442, P = 0.007; adjusted OR = 3.129, 95% CI: 1.104-8.866, P = 0.032; overdominant model: crude OR = 1.968, 95% CI: 1.043-3.714, P = 0.037; adjusted OR = 2.854, 95% CI: 1.005-8.108, P = 0.049; codominant: crude OR = 2.102, 95% CI: 1.110-3.979, P = 0.023; adjusted OR = 2.984, 95% CI: 1.047-8.502, P = 0.041). Carotid IMT of carriers with CT + CC genotypes was higher than carriers with TT genotype (P = 0.016). Our results indicated that the SNP83/rs966221 located on PDE4D gene was significantly associated between CAS susceptibility and carotid IMT independently of conventional risk factors in a southern Chinese Han population.

Sesamol Alleviates Obesity-Related Hepatic Steatosis via Activating Hepatic PKA Pathway

This study aimed to investigate the effect of sesamol (SEM) on the protein kinase A (PKA) pathway in obesity-related hepatic steatosis treatment by using high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice and a palmitic acid (PA)-treated HepG2 cell line. SEM reduced the body weight gain of obese mice and alleviated related metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and systemic inflammation. Furthermore, lipid accumulation in the liver and HepG2 cells was reduced by SEM. SEM downregulated the gene and protein levels of lipogenic regulator factors, and upregulated the gene and protein levels of the regulator factors responsible for lipolysis and fatty acid β-oxidation. Meanwhile, SEM activated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which might explain the regulatory effect of SEM on fatty acid β-oxidation and lipogenesis. Additionally, the PKA-C and phospho-PKA substrate levels were higher after SEM treatment. Further research found that after pretreatment with the PKA inhibitor, H89, lipid accumulation was increased even with SEM administration in HepG2 cells, and the effect of SEM on lipid metabolism-related regulator factors was abolished by H89. In conclusion, SEM has a positive therapeutic effect on obesity and obesity-related hepatic steatosis by regulating the hepatic lipid metabolism mediated by the PKA pathway.

Cecal Ligation and Puncture Alters Glucocorticoid Receptor Expression

OBJECTIVES

Interventional trials on glucocorticoids in sepsis have yielded capricious results. Recent studies have identified multiple glucocorticoid receptor isoforms. The relative abundance of these isoforms in septic patients and following murine cecal ligation and puncture is unknown. The objective of this study is to determine the effects of cecal ligation and puncture on glucocorticoid receptor isoform abundance.

DESIGN

Determination of effects of cecal ligation and puncture on glucocorticoid receptor isoform subtype abundance in C57BL/6 mice. Examination of glucocorticoid receptor isoform abundance in tissues harvested from patients immediately after death from sepsis or nonseptic critical illness.

SETTING

Research laboratory.

SUBJECTS

C57BL/6 mice and human tissue sections from recently deceased critically ill patients.

INTERVENTIONS

C57BL/6 mice were subjected to cecal ligation and puncture or sham operation. Abundance of the activating glucocorticoid receptor α and the inactivating glucocorticoid receptor β isoforms was determined in mouse and human tissue using immunoblotting. Cardiac output with or without stimulation with dexamethasone was assessed using echocardiography. The expression of the gene encoding the glucocorticoid-dependent enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase was identified using polymerase chain reaction. Statistical significance (p < 0.05) was determined using analysis of variance.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Results in baseline and sham operation mice were identical. At baseline, glucocorticoid receptor αA predominated in heart, lung, and skeletal muscle; abundance was decreased post cecal ligation and puncture. All glucocorticoid receptor α subtypes were identified in liver. Cecal ligation and puncture decreased the summed abundance of hepatic glucocorticoid receptor α subtypes and those of glucocorticoid receptors αA, B, and D. However, glucocorticoid receptor αC abundance was unchanged. Cecal ligation and puncture increased glucocorticoid receptor β protein abundance in the heart and lung. Relative to T0, cecal ligation and puncture decreased cardiac output and attenuated the cardiac output response to dexamethasone. Cecal ligation and puncture also decreased expression of glucose-6-phosphatase. Compared with nonseptic patients, human sepsis decreased the abundance of glucocorticoid receptor α and increased the abundance of glucocorticoid receptor β in heart and liver biopsies.

CONCLUSIONS

Cecal ligation and puncture altered glucocorticoid receptor α and glucocorticoid receptor β isoform expression in tissues and decreased functional responses in heart and liver. Decreases in glucocorticoid receptor α and increases in glucocorticoid receptor β might explain the diminished glucocorticoid responsiveness observed in sepsis.

An Ancient Chinese Herbal Decoction Containing Angelicae Sinensis Radix, Astragali Radix, Jujuba Fructus, and Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens Stimulates the Browning Conversion of White Adipocyte in Cultured 3T3-L1 Cells

Background

Abnormal storage of white adipocyte tissue (WAT) is the major factor causing obesity. The promising strategies for obesity treatment are building up the brown adipocyte tissue (BAT) and/or expedite fatty acid catabolism. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) sheds light on preventing obesity. Ginger is one of the most effective herbs for antiobesity by accelerating browning WAT. To fortify the antiobesity effect of ginger, an ancient Chinese herbal decoction composed of four herbs, Angelicae Sinensis Radix (ASR), Astragali Radix (AR), Jujuba Fructus (JF), and Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens (ZRR; ginger), was tested here: this herbal formula was written in AD 1155, named as Danggui Buxue Tang (DBT₁₁₅₅). Therefore, the antiobesity function of this ancient herbal decoction was revealed in vitro by cultured 3T3-L1 cells.

Materials and Method

The lipid accumulation was detected by Oil Red O staining. Furthermore, the underlying working mechanisms of antiobesity functions of DBT₁₁₅₅ were confirmed in 3T3-L1 cells by confocal microscopy, western blot, and RT-PCR.

Results

DBT₁₁₅₅ was able to actuate brown fat-specific gene activations, which included (i) expression of PPARγ, UCP1, and PCG1α and (ii) fatty acid oxidation genes, i.e., CPT1A and HSL. The increase of browning WAT, triggered by DBT₁₁₅₅, was possibly mediated by a Ca²⁺-AMPK signaling pathway, because the application of Ca²⁺ chelator, BAMPTA-AM, reversed the effect.

Conclusion

These findings suggested that the herbal mixture DBT₁₁₅₅ could potentiate the antiobesity functions of ginger, which might have potential therapeutic implications.

Fatty acid metabolism by the osteoblast

The emergence of bone as an endocrine organ able to influence whole body metabolism, together with comorbid epidemics of obesity, diabetes, and osteoporosis, have prompted a renewed interest in the intermediary metabolism of the osteoblast. To date, most studies have focused on the utilization of glucose by this specialized cell, but the oxidation of fatty acids results in a larger energy yield. Osteoblasts express the requisite receptors and catabolic enzymes to take up and then metabolize fatty acids, which appears to be required during later stages of differentiation when the osteoblast is dedicated to matrix production and mineralization. In this article, we provide an overview of fatty acid β-oxidation and highlight studies demonstrating that the skeleton plays a significant role in the clearance of circulating lipoproteins and non-esterified fatty acids. Additionally, we review the requirement for long-chain fatty acid metabolism during post-natal bone development and the effects of anabolic stimuli on fatty acid utilization by osteoblasts. These recent findings may help to explain the skeletal manifestations of human diseases associated with impaired lipid metabolism while also providing additional insights into the metabolic requirements of skeletal homeostasis.

HDAC5 integrates ER stress and fasting signals to regulate hepatic fatty acid oxidation

Disregulation of fatty acid oxidation, one of the major mechanisms for maintaining hepatic lipid homeostasis under fasting conditions, leads to hepatic steatosis. Although obesity and type 2 diabetes-induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress contribute to hepatic steatosis, it is largely unknown how ER stress regulates fatty acid oxidation. Here we show that fasting glucagon stimulates the dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation of histone deacetylase 5 (HDAC5), where it interacts with PPARα and promotes transcriptional activity of PPARα. As a result, overexpression of HDAC5 but not PPARα binding-deficient HDAC5 in liver improves lipid homeostasis, whereas RNAi-mediated knockdown of HDAC5 deteriorates hepatic steatosis. ER stress inhibits fatty acid oxidation gene expression via calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II-mediated phosphorylation of HDAC5. Most important, hepatic overexpression of a phosphorylation-deficient mutant HDAC5 2SA promotes hepatic fatty acid oxidation gene expression and protects against hepatic steatosis in mice fed a high-fat diet. We have identified HDAC5 as a novel mediator of hepatic fatty acid oxidation by fasting and ER stress signals, and strategies to promote HDAC5 dephosphorylation could serve as new tools for the treatment of obesity-associated hepatic steatosis.

Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist and Glucagon Increase Glucose-Stimulated Insulin Secretion in Beta Cells via Distinct Adenylyl Cyclases

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease in which the pancreas no longer produces enough insulin. Pancreatic alpha cell mass increases in response to insufficient insulin secretion. However, the reason for this increase is not clear. It is possible that the increased alpha-cells may stimulate compensatory insulin release in response to the insufficient insulin such as insulin resistance. In this study, we investigated whether glucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), hormones produced by alpha cells, contribute to insulin secretion in INS-1 cells, a beta cell line. We confirmed that alpha cell area in the pancreatic islets and glucagon secretion were increased in HFD-induced obese mice. Co-treatment with glucagon and exendin-4 (Ex-4), a GLP-1 receptor agonist, additively increased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in INS-1 cells. In parallel, cAMP production was also additively increased by co-treatment with these hormones. The increase of insulin secretion by Ex-4 in the presence of high glucose was inhibited by 2'5'-dideoxyadenosine, a transmembrane adenylyl cyclase inhibitor, but not by KH-7, a soluble adenylyl cyclase inhibitor. The increase of insulin secretion by glucagon in INS-1 cells was inhibited by both 2'5'-dideoxyadenosine and KH-7. We suggest that glucagon and GLP-1 produced from alpha cells additively increase cAMP and insulin secretion in the presence of high glucose via distinct adenylyl cyclases in INS-1 cells, and this may contribute to the compensatory increase of insulin secretion by an increase of pancreatic alpha cell mass under conditions of insulin resistance.