Subcutaneous granuloma annulare: a review of 47 cases

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare: a systematic review of a rare and underdiagnosed disease

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA) is a rare clinicopathologic subtype of granuloma annulare characterized by the presence of subcutaneous nodules. There are no present reviews synthesizing the clinical features and treatment modalities in SGA. We conducted a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines [CRD42022344672] on all peer-reviewed English-language studies that reported one or more cases of SGA. A total of 97 studies, comprising 26 case series and 71 case reports with 324 patients, were included for analysis. Most cases were predominantly pediatric, with 78.9% of the cases identified being age 16 or lower and a median age of diagnosis of 6. There was no overall gender predisposition. Although over two-thirds of patients did not have any comorbidities, diabetes mellitus was the most common comorbidity present in 4% of cases. The most common feature of SGA was nodules, which were present in 99.6% of patients. Pain or tenderness was reported in 15.4%, and erythema of overlying skin in 11.0% of cases. Surgical excision was performed in 96/141 (68.1%) patients. Among the 27/141 (18.0%) patients who were conservatively managed, 87.0% spontaneously improved, including 60.0% who completely self-resolved. Topical and intralesional steroids were used in 3.40% and 1.85% of patients, respectively, resulting in complete or partial resolution in 54.6% and 100%. Among patients who were followed up, 83/324 (25.6%) patients experienced recurrence after a median duration of 26 weeks. SGA is predominantly a pediatric disease that frequently occurs on the limbs and the head. Juxta-articular lesions are more commonly observed in adults than in children. Surgical excision is common and effective in most patients. Spontaneous improvement occurs in most untreated cases, and intralesional steroids but not topical steroids may be beneficial for non-resolving cases and to reduce time to resolution.

The epifascial cap: A typical imaging sign for subcutaneous granuloma annulare in children

OBJECTIVES

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA) is a rare, self-limiting granulomatous disease in children, commonly diagnosed by histopathology following biopsy or surgical excision. This study aimed to identify imaging clues for SGA that could expedite accurate diagnosis and avoid the need for biopsy in children.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed complete hospital records of all children diagnosed with SGA at our institution from January 2001 to December 2020. Detailed disease history, imaging findings, management, and outcome were evaluated.

RESULTS

We identified 28 patients (20 girls) at a median age of 3.75 (range 1-12.5 years). Ten patients presented with multiple lesions. Most lesions were located on the lower extremities (n = 26/41). Ultrasound examinations were performed on all patients, and 12 (43%) patients also received an MRI. Surgical intervention was conducted in 18 (64%) patients either by incisional biopsy (n = 6) or total excision of the lump (n = 12). In all patients who did not undergo surgery, SGA resolved spontaneously. A careful review of the MRIs led to the discovery of a characteristic imaging shape of SGA lesions: the epifascial cap with a typical broad circular base laying on the fascia, extending towards the subdermal/dermal tissue. This distinctive shape was evident in every patient in our cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

The "Epifascial Cap Sign" is a specific imaging sign for SGA, which to the best of our knowledge, helps distinguish this disease from other subcutaneous lesions. Recognition of this novel diagnostic sign combined with the historical and physical findings should enable clinicians to establish SGA diagnosis easily and diminish the need for further invasive diagnostic procedures.

Incidence and Prevalence of Granuloma Annulare in the United States

Importance

Although several single-center studies have estimated that granuloma annulare may account for approximately 0.1% to 0.4% of new patients presenting to dermatologists, large-scale population-based studies estimating the prevalence and incidence of granuloma annulare are lacking.

Objectives

To estimate the population-based incidence and prevalence of granuloma annulare in the United States and to identify the most commonly prescribed treatments.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study used deidentified data from the Optum Clinformatics Data Mart Database from January 1, 2017, to December 31, 2018, to identify patients with granuloma annulare.

Main Outcomes and Measures

After validating an approach to classify patients with granuloma annulare using International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision codes, the primary outcomes were age-, sex-, and race/ethnicity-specific annualized incidence and prevalence estimates for granuloma annulare. In addition, treatment use within 6 to 12 months after the first diagnosis of granuloma annulare was examined. Confidence intervals for prevalence and incidence estimates were computed assuming a binomial distribution using the Wilson score method. Age-, sex-, and race/ethnicity-specific incidence and prevalence estimates were compared using the χ2 test.

Results

A total of 11 608 patients with incident granuloma annulare (8680 female patients [74.8%]; mean [SD] age, 56.5 [18.8] years) and 17 862 patients with prevalent granuloma annulare (13 548 female patients [75.8%]; mean [SD] age, 56.6 [18.5] years) were identified during the study period. The overall annualized incidence of granuloma annulare was 0.04%, or 37.9 (95% CI, 36.9-38.9) per 100 000, and the overall annualized prevalence of granuloma annulare was 0.06%, or 58.3 (95% CI, 57.1-59.5) per 100 000. The incidence and prevalence of granuloma annulare were highest in the fifth decade of life. The incidence and prevalence of granuloma annulare were higher among women (incidence: female to male ratio, 2.8:1; prevalence: female to male ratio, 3.0:1). Within 6 months of their first diagnosis, 4822 patients (41.5%) filled a prescription for a topical corticosteroid, and 1087 patients (9.4%) received an intralesional injection. Within 6 months of their first diagnosis, oral tetracycline prescriptions were filled by 820 patients (7.1%), and hydroxychloroquine prescriptions were filled by 268 patients (2.3%).

Conclusions and Relevance

Granuloma annulare is a rare disease in the United States that is more common among women and middle-aged to older individuals. The findings of this cross-sectional study provide important background regarding the basic epidemiology and overall burden of granuloma annulare in the United States. Future studies are needed to better understand the association of granuloma annulare with quality of life and the most optimal treatment approaches for this condition.

Association of Granuloma Annulare With Type 2 Diabetes, Hyperlipidemia, Autoimmune Disorders, and Hematologic Malignant Neoplasms

IMPORTANCE

Although granuloma annulare (GA) has been associated with several other conditions, these studies have been limited by single-center designs and small sample sizes.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether there is an association between GA and type 2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia, autoimmune conditions, and hematologic malignant neoplasms, using a large population-based cohort study.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This retrospective cohort study conducted between January 1, 2016, and June 30, 2019, used deidentified data from the US Optum Clinformatics Data Mart Database. A total of 5137 patients with GA were matched by age and sex with up to 10 randomly selected controls (n = 51 169) with a diagnosis of a nevus or seborrheic keratosis.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Logistic regression was used to evaluate for potential associations between GA and diabetes, hyperlipidemia, autoimmune conditions, and hematologic malignant neoplasms. All analyses were adjusted for race/ethnicity, income, and educational level.

RESULTS

This study included 5137 individuals with GA (3760 women [73.2%]; mean [SD] age, 57.7 [19.0] years) and 51 169 controls (37 456 women [73.2%]; mean [SD] age, 57.7 [19.0] years). Those with GA were more likely than controls to have baseline diabetes (1086 [21.1%] vs 6780 [13.3%]; adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.67; 95% CI, 1.55-1.80), hyperlipidemia (1669 [32.5%] vs 14 553 [28.4%]; aOR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.08-1.23), hypothyroidism (727 [14.2%] vs 5780 [11.3%]; aOR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.15-1.36), and rheumatoid arthritis (62 [1.2%] vs 441 [0.9%]; aOR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.02-1.75). Those with GA were more likely to have incident diabetes (144 [2.8%] vs 1061 [2.1%]; aOR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.10-1.57), hypothyroidism (41 [0.8%] vs 252 [0.5%]; aOR, 1.59; 95% CI, 1.14-2.22), systemic lupus erythematosus (21 [0.4%] vs 65 [0.1%]; aOR, 3.06; 95% CI, 1.86-5.01), and rheumatoid arthritis (26 [0.5%] vs 122 [0.2%]; aOR, 2.05; 95% CI, 1.34-3.13). There was no association between GA and an increased risk of hematologic malignant neoplasms.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This population-based cohort study identified associations between GA and baseline diabetes and hyperlipidemia as well as between GA and both baseline and incident autoimmune conditions. These findings suggest that diabetes and hyperlipidemia may be risk factors for the development of GA and that autoimmunity may be an important factor in the pathogenesis of GA.

Subcutaneous nodules in children: Don't forget deep granuloma annulare: A Case Report

Deep granuloma annulare is an uncommon benign granulomatous skin disorder that presents almost exclusively in the paediatric population. It presents as an asymptomatic subcutaneous nodule with normal overlying skin on distal extremities, the scalp, or the forehead. It shows a deep palisading granuloma with areas of central necrobiosis on histologic examination. Due to its self-limited nature, clinical follow-up is recommended over surgical interventions. We present a case of cephalic deep granuloma annulare in a healthy 5-year-old girl who remains free of recurrence after surgical excision at the 6-month follow-up. Our case emphasizes the importance of differentiating the lesion from its clinical and histopathological mimickers, such as the rheumatoid nodule. The awareness of this entity is important to avoid the overinvestigation and overtreatment of a benign and self-limited disease.

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare on the heel: A case report and review of the Japanese published work

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare is a rare variant of granuloma annulare. It mostly presents as painless subcutaneous nodule(s) with or without annular lesions on the lower legs and scalp of children. We herein report a case of a 5-year-old Japanese girl with subcutaneous granuloma annulare on the right heel. The lesions improved in 15 months without any therapy. We also review 85 reported cases of subcutaneous granuloma annulare between 1 and 85 years of age in the Japanese published work. The most susceptible age was 5 years and below; however, a small peak occurred from the 40s to 60s. Subcutaneous granuloma annulare was more frequent in females (male : female ratio, 6:11). Sixty-five cases (76.4%) had multiple lesions; the average number of lesions was 4.8 ± 5.8. The most affected site was the lower legs (28 cases), followed by the dorsum of the foot (21 cases) and scalp (17 cases). The heel was an unusual location; only two cases of sole subcutaneous granuloma annulare have been reported. Twenty-one cases revealed a classical dermal change along with a subcutaneous change. Patients with classical dermal lesions were younger (P < 0.0001) and had a smaller number of lesions (P < 0.05) than those without the lesions. The lesion(s) resolved in 24 of the 44 untreated cases within 1 week to 19 months. Refractory or recurrent lesion(s) were seen in four of 21 treated cases and in four of 44 untreated cases. Because subcutaneous granuloma annulare lesions often resolve spontaneously without treatment, invasive treatments should be avoided.

Scanning electron microscopy of granuloma annulare

Light microscopy of granuloma annulare shows mucin deposition with lympho-histiocytic infiltrate. We describe the ultrastructural three-dimensional aspects of a typical case of granuloma with characteristic histopathological findings. At the ultrastructural level, affected collagen bundles and granular mucin deposition were observed. Round cells corresponding to lymphocytes were identified. Bigger oval cells, corresponding to isolated or palisading histiocytes were also found. The ultrastructural aspects overlap with light microscopy and contribute to its iconographic documentation.

Granuloma Annulare: A Focused Review of Therapeutic Options

Granuloma annulare (GA) is a benign inflammatory disease associated with many conditions such as malignancy, trauma, thyroid disease, diabetes mellitus, and HIV infection. Common clinical subtypes include localized GA, generalized GA, subcutaneous GA, perforating GA, and patch GA. There exists an abundance of literature on GA, yet we know relatively little about its exact etiology and even less about its treatment. The paucity of conclusive data on effective treatment options is largely because the majority of published studies are limited to small case reports, case series, and retrospective studies. As such, there does not yet exist a gold standard of care to guide clinical management. Depending on the clinical subtype, the clinical prognosis for GA can vary. The localized variant generally self-resolves within 2 years without treatment, whereas the generalized form is more chronic and less responsive to treatment. This focused up-to-date review serves to summarize the latest therapeutic options available for GA.

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare involving the scalp

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA) is an uncommon subtype of granuloma annulare. There are few reports of this entity solely affecting the scalp. We report a case of biopsy-proven SGA in a 21-month-old boy with six asymptomatic, rock-hard scalp nodules.

Subcutaneous Granuloma Annulare: A Diagnostic Conundrum-Learning From Mistakes

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare is an inflammatory lesion occurring in otherwise healthy children. We present 3 pediatric patients with different diagnostic-therapeutic paths depending on the ward they were referred to. The lesions regress spontaneously, and medical or surgical treatments are generally not necessary.

[Clinical and histological spectrum of palisaded granulomatous dermatitides : Granuloma annulare, necrobiosis lipoidica, rheumatoid nodules, and necrobiotic xanthogranuloma]

The palisading granulomatous dermatitides comprise a group of different skin diseases with similar histomorphologic forms of granuloma in the skin. Histopathologically characteristic are areas in the reticular dermis and subcutaneous fat with degenerated bundles of collagen surrounded by histiocytes and multinucleate giant cells aligned in a palisade (necrobiotic granuloma). Within the center of palisaded granulomas, mucin or fibrin can be found. The skin diseases presenting histologically with palisading granuloma are granuloma annulare and necrobiosis lipoidica. Palisading granuloma may also be an expression of systemic disease in rheumatoid nodules and necrobiotic xanthogranuloma. Little is known about the pathogenesis. The clinical presentation of the diseases is variable. Therapy is challenging and may not be satisfying.

Granuloma annulare: Clinical and histologic variants, epidemiology, and genetics

Granuloma annulare (GA) is a poorly understood condition characterized by a set of clinical morphologic variants with 2 predominant histopathologic patterns of inflammation. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the available information about the clinical variants and histopathologic features, current epidemiologic data, and potential genetic underpinnings of GA. Much of the current understanding of GA is based on retrospective studies, case series, and case reports; this review aims to synthesize the available information and present it clearly for practicing dermatologists.

[Multiple cephalic deep granuloma annulare of children]

BACKGROUND

Deep granuloma annulare is a fairly rare variety of granuloma annulare. It is seen predominantly in children and mainly affects the anterior aspect of the legs and the top of the feet; cephalic presentation is rare. Below, we report three cases of deep granuloma annulare in children presenting solely at the cephalic extremity.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Case 1: a six-year-old boy presented 7 cutaneous nodules measuring 1 to 2cm that were flesh-coloured, insensitive to palpation, of hard consistency and deeply attached. The lesions were grouped together on the anterior half of the left temporal fossa. While spontaneous regression of the three nodules was noted in the month following cutaneous biopsy, these nodules recurred a few months later. Case 2: a four-year-old girl with five deep cephalic nodules measuring around one centimetre and the colour of normal skin were seen on her right temporal fossa. The child was lost to follow-up after biopsy. Case 3: a four-month-old infant was presenting some 15 deep cutaneous nodules arranged in linear fashion on the forehead next to the left temporal fossa. These nodules regressed spontaneously one month after biopsy. In all three cases, histological examination confirmed the diagnosis of deep granuloma annulare.

DISCUSSION

There have been few published cases of multiple, cephalic, deep granuloma annulare at a single site in children. The condition has an extensive differential diagnosis that includes malignant tumours; in addition, histological confirmation is normally essential. Treatment is not qualified and therapeutic extension with clinical monitoring alone may frequently be recommended.

Histologic features of granulomatous skin diseases. Part 1: Non-infectious granulomatous disorders

Granulomatous disorders affecting the skin belong to a heterogeneous group of diseases. With the exception of granulomas induced by infectious agents or foreign bodies, the etiopathogenesis of granulomatous disorders is still poorly understood. The knowledge of histopathologic changes is of great importance for understanding clinical presentation and disease course.

Asymptomatic Papulo-nodules Localized to One Finger

Subcutaneous or deep granuloma annulare is a benign asymptomatic condition characterized by firm asymptomatic nodules in deep subcutaneous tissues that may be associated with intradermal lesions. A 53-year-old female presented with asymptomatic skin-colored, firm nodules over the right ring finger. Histopathology revealed a palisading granuloma with central degenerated collagen and mucin deposition in the dermis suggestive of granuloma annulare. Isolated and unilateral involvement of a single digit with clusters of nodules of subcutaneous granuloma annulare (GA) in an adult is rare and differentiation from its simulator rheumatoid nodule is essential.

Atypical subcutaneous granuloma annulare on the digit: a case report

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare is a benign inflammatory disorder consisting of deep dermal or subcutaneous nodules, and frequently occurring in the extremities and scalp in children. The occurrence of aggregated multiple nodules in a digit is quite atypical. This is a report of an eight-year-old girl who presented with increasingly asymptomatic multiple nodules on her middle finger over a period of six months. Definitive diagnosis of subcutaneous granuloma annulare was achieved with surgical biopsy and no aggressive growth subsequently and showed a tendency toward spontaneous resolution.

Papular granuloma annulare of palms and soles: case report of a rare presentation

We report the case of a 44-year-old Indian male patient who presented with mildly tender isolated papular lesions confined to the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The histopathology was characteristic of granuloma annulare. There was an excellent response with 4-week treatment with a potent topical steroid ointment and no recurrence was reported at the follow-up one year later. This report is interesting because of the rare presentation of a common disease.

An unusual presentation of subcutaneous granuloma annulare in association with juvenile-onset diabetes: case report and literature review

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA) is a rarely reported subtype of granuloma annulare that occurs almost exclusively in children. The etiology of these lesions is unknown, although a possible relationship to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) has been proposed in the literature. Here we present an unusual case of SGA on the right forearm in a 3-year-old girl. Unlike the typical lesions noted on the extremities, on magnetic resonance imaging her lesions involved the subcutaneous tissue and adjacent muscles in multiple locations. Histopathologically, the case was consistent with SGA but was unusual in its distribution involving multiple muscles, a finding that has not been previously reported. Weeks after incisional biopsy, she was readmitted with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) secondary to IDDM. After treatment of her DKA and control of her glycemia, the forearm SGA vanished, which supported the pathologic diagnosis and alleviated our concerns secondary to the unusual distribution.

Intra-lesional steroid for the management of symptomatic Infantile Digital Fibromatosis

BACKGROUND

Infantile Digital Fibromatosis (IDF) is a benign, often asymptomatic nodular proliferation of fibrous tissue occurring almost exclusively on the extremities. Conventional treatment has included radical surgery but this is associated with a high level of recurrence. Whilst some authors suggest a strictly conservative approach, this is unacceptable when lesions become symptomatic from pain, contracture formation or functional deformity

METHODS

We present a retrospective analysis of 12 symptomatic lesions of which 7 were treated with a novel technique of intra-lesional steroid. From 2004-2009, a total of ten patients received treatment for symptomatic IDFs. Patients were followed-up for an average of 5 years 9 months (range 8-131 months).

RESULTS

Corticosteroid was well tolerated with no significant complications and was associated with lower morbidity that compared with surgery. There was no significance difference between rate of recurrence (1/7 vs. 5/10) for those treated with corticosteroid than compared to those patients who underwent surgery (p = 0.3) but the study is underpowered.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first ever study to look at the role of intra-lesional steroid in the management of IDF. Whilst the majority of asymptomatic Infantile Digital Fibromatoses can be safely observed until natural resolution, intra-lesional corticosteroid is a safe and well-tolerated alternative to surgery for all symptomatic digital fibromatoses of infancy. We suggest it replaces surgery as first-line treatment but look forward to a large multicentre trial to allow comparison.

Granuloma annulare mimicking dorsal knuckle pads

A 37-year-old man underwent excision of what was presumed to be knuckle pads associated with Dupuytren disease. The histology revealed granuloma annulare, which is typically treated nonsurgically. This report includes a discussion of granuloma annulare and its differentiation from knuckle pads.

Anti-tumor necrosis factor-α treatment with infliximab for disseminated granuloma annulare

Granuloma annulare (GA) is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown etiology characterized by the development of plaques preferentially localized to the distal extremities. Spontaneous remission and relapses are quite common and the course of GA is not easy to predict. Moreover, most therapeutic regimens have been used anecdotally and with variable success. We report the case of a 62-year-old White female patient affected by disseminated GA unsuccessfully treated with psoralen plus UVA photochemotherapy, prednisone, and cyclosporine (ciclosporin) who responded to the anti-tumor necrosis factor-α monoclonal antibody infliximab administered intravenously at a dosage of 5 mg/kg at weeks 0, 2, and 6 and thereafter at monthly intervals for 10 additional months. Most of the GA lesions improved within 8 weeks and then slowly resolved within 10 months of treatment. We suggest that infliximab may be proposed as an additional therapeutic option in the treatment of recalcitrant forms of disseminated GA.

Granuloma annulare of the penis in a seven-year-old boy

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare of the penis is rare, with only 10 cases in the world literature. This paper describes the youngest case ever reported and reviews its clinical features and management.

Links between granuloma annulare, necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum and childhood diabetes: a matter of time?

Diabetes mellitus is associated with a range of dermatologic presentations, including granuloma annulare and necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum. Granuloma annulare occurs earlier than necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum and the association with diabetes mellitus is much weaker. We describe two children with diabetes who both developed granuloma annulare and later, necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum. We postulate that the early onset and transient nature of granuloma annulare, compared with the later onset and persistence of necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum, might account for the different apparent rates of association with diabetes mellitus.

Diagnostic dilemma of a subcutaneous nodule following a trauma in a child: immunohistochemical examination put the final diagnosis of deep granuloma annulare

The diagnostic dilemma is discussed on a child who presented a granulomatous process of the inferior limb following a trauma. It was originally considered epithelioid sarcoma (ES) and later diagnosed as deep granuloma annulare (DGA). In combination with the clinical assessment, the plain radiographs, the ultrasound and the magnetic resonance proved inadequate in reaching diagnosis and in excluding neoplasia. Biopsy was required, and the following immunohistochemical examination put the definitive diagnosis of deep granuloma annulare. Development of DGA after trauma seems to be rare, but it is a possible event and further observations are needed to explain the triggering roles in the etiopathogenesis of this disease.

Atypical rheumatoid nodules: a possible precursor to a rheumatoid variant in a rheumatoid-factor-negative patient. Case report

Subcutaneous nodules occur in approximately 20-25% of rheumatoid factor (RF)-positive rheumatoid patients. In this paper, we present a unique case of a 47-year-old healthy RF-negative woman with a 3-year history of necrobiotic nodules over the dorsum of her hands, extensor forearms, and lower extremities. This may represent an atypical presentation or a new rheumatoid variant.

Surgical management and outcome of scalp subcutaneous granuloma annulare in children: case report

OBJECTIVE

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA) is a benign inflammatory disorder that rarely affects the scalp. We report 5 cases of children with SGA scalp lesions and discuss our clinical experience and the characteristic findings, diagnostic evaluation, method of treatment, and course of the disease.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

Five patients presented with multiple subcutaneous nodules at single or multiple sites overlying the scalp. A retrospective review of the medical, surgical, and pathology records of the 5 patients was conducted.

INTERVENTION

All scalp lesions were excised and were confirmed histologically to be SGA nodules. In 4 of the 5 patients, the nodules were nontender and nonmobile. The mean number of lesions was 4.2. The mean age of patients at presentation was 3.8 years. Of the 5 patients, 4 experienced at least 1 recurrence of a solitary lesion at either the same site or a different site. In the 80% of patients who experienced a recurrence, all lesions recurred less than 1 year postoperatively, except in the case of 1 patient who continued to experience a disappearance and reappearance of lesions at 72 months. The ultimate diagnosis of all lesions was established through biopsy and subsequent microscopic evaluation. No postoperative complications were noted.

CONCLUSION

Granuloma annulare should be included in the differential diagnosis whenever a scalp subcutaneous superficial nodule is observed. Although many modalities of treatment for SGA nodules are used, recurrence is common, even with surgical excision.

Head and neck epithelioid sarcoma in a child: diagnostic dilemma and anterolateral thigh free flap reconstruction

The diagnostic dilemma is discussed of a child who presented with a granulomatous process of the external ear that was originally considered granuloma annulare and was later diagnosed as epithelioid sarcoma. We present the surgical treatment and the first report of reconstruction of a lateral skull base and cheek defect with an anterolateral thigh (ALT) free flap in a pediatric patient.

Histological and immunohistochemical study of granuloma annulare and subcutaneous granuloma annulare in children

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the histological and immunohistochemical features of granuloma annulare (GA) in comparison to deep granuloma annulare (DGA) and granulomatous dermatoses (GDs).

METHODS

Our material comprised 13 GA, 8 DGA and 1 atypical granuloma annulare (AGA) in a child with primary immunodeficiency, 10 cases of nonspecific GDs and 1 case of sarcoidosis with cutaneous involvement. The immunohistochemical streptavidin-biotin-Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) analysis was performed on paraffin sections for the detection of CD68/KP-1, CD68/anti-human CD68 clone PGM1 (PGM1), lysozyme, S-100 protein, CD1a, CD3, CD20/L-26, CD4 and CD8.

RESULTS

All 13 GA were characterized by typical palisading and interstitial granulomas. In 6 cases, the lesion extended to the subcutaneous fat, while a considerable perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate without any signs of vasculitis was observed in 10 cases. The DGA were located to the deep dermis and subcutaneous fat, showing palisading granulomas with central necrobiosis. Immunohistochemistry revealed a broad intense expression of CD68/PGM1 in the histiocytic population in all cases, a constant but fainter detection of CD68/KP-1 and a variable one of lysozyme. T-cell markers (CD3, CD4 and CD8) were mainly detected in the perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate of GA and DGA, with CD4+ T lymphocytes predominating over CD8+ in GA and DGA, while CD8+ T lymphocytes was the predominant population in AGA.

CONCLUSIONS

CD68/PGM1 is a sensitive and reliable histiocytic marker in confirming the histiocytic nature of equivocal GA and DGA, but the histiocytic immunoprofile is of no particular usefulness in differentiating GA from other GD.

Subcutaneous (deep) granuloma annulare in children: a possible mimicker of epithelioid sarcoma

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA) is a self-limited inflammatory lesion consisting of dermal or subcutaneous nodules usually affecting children. Lower extremity involvement is the most common anatomic site. Because of the subcutaneous location, the morphological diagnosis of SGA can be challenging, and differential diagnoses are both benign and malignant processes including epithelioid sarcoma. Our article examines the clinical, histopathological, and immunohistochemical aspects of SGA in comparison to ES. We present 3 cases of SGA in children, who were initially diagnosed with ES and discuss the differential diagnoses features between SGA and ES. Because SGA can simulate ES, the awareness of this possibility is important to avoid overtreatment, like amputation, of the benign condition (SGA).

Large benign rheumatoid nodules of the trunk in an elderly patient: radiologic appearance mimicking a soft-tissue sarcoma

An 80-year-old woman without any evidence of rheumatoid arthritis presented with two large (maximum diameter: 6 cm and 7 cm), rapidly growing, rubbery nodules on the trunk. Although the clinical and radiological appearance suggested malignancy, the nodules were pathologically identical to rheumatoid nodules in rheumatoid arthritis, and the nodules regressed spontaneously. The final diagnosis was benign rheumatoid nodules. Recognition of this rare clinical entity is important to avoid unnecessary examination and treatment.

What is That Nodule?

The evaluation of patients with subcutaneous nodules remains a diagnostic challenge. The presence of nodules can be a clue to an underlying systemic disease; however, the varied presentations of nodules and numerous disease associations make the assessment of patients with nodules far from simple. With further investigation into the appearance, location, and symptoms associated with nodules, the clinical significance of these lesions can become clearer and aid in logical diagnostic evaluation. We have reviewed the causes of nodules with emphasis on those associated with rheumatic disease and provide guidelines for nodule evaluation to better characterize disease association and lead to directed diagnostic assessment.

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare in a child's palm: a case report

We present a rare case of subcutaneous lesions arising in the palm of a 4-year-old girl. Histologic examination of the biopsy specimens showed granulomatous inflammation with focal necrobiosis, which was consistent with subcutaneous granuloma annulare. Subcutaneous granuloma annulare is a self-limited disease and treatment is not required, although recurrence and/or multiple lesions are frequent.

Congenital subcutaneous granuloma annulare

Granuloma annulare is a palisading granulomatous skin disease which may be generalized, localized, perforating, or subcutaneous. Subcutaneous granuloma annulare is self-limiting, affecting infants and children, with typical postnatal onset. Here we report a patient with congenital clinical manifestations.

Rapid improvement of recalcitrant disseminated granuloma annulare upon treatment with the tumour necrosis factor-alpha inhibitor, infliximab

Granuloma annulare (GA) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of unknown aetiology, which is characterized clinically by erythematous plaques preferentially localized to the distal extremities, although disseminated variants exist. In light of the chronic relapsing nature of GA and lack of satisfactory treatment options, we initiated treatment with infliximab in a patient with chronic disseminated GA that was recalcitrant to standard treatment. The 59-year-old female patient with insulin-dependent diabetes had experienced GA lesions for more than 4 years despite various systemic and topical treatments. Systemic glucocorticoids were not a therapeutic option because of the preexisting unstable insulin-dependent diabetes. Infliximab was administered intravenously at 5 mg kg(-1) day(-1) at weeks 0, 2 and 6 and thereafter at a monthly interval for an additional 4 months. Most of the GA plaques resolved within 4-6 weeks, leaving postinflammatory brownish macules. Newly arising plaques disappeared within 2 weeks and new GA lesions were not observed during the entire observation period of more than 16 months. Infliximab may be an additional option in the treatment of recalcitrant forms of GA as well as in other chronic granulomatous skin disorders, such as sarcoidosis and necrobiosis lipoidica.

Pseudorheumatoid Nodules in Adults

Pseudorheumatoid nodules are considered a deep form of granuloma annulare. Most cases are described in children, occur mainly on the lower legs and scalp, and have favorable prognosis. Their appearance in adults is rare. In this series, fourteen women with pseudorheumatoid nodules were studied. The average age of onset was 36 years old. Lesions consisted of erythematous, violaceous, or skin-colored nodules located mainly on the small joints of the hands. None of the patients developed collagen vascular disease. Persistence was common. Biopsy specimens showed deep dermal nodules composed of epithelioid granulomata separated by thickened collagen bundles. In some areas eosinophilic material was surrounded by histiocytes in a palisaded array. Granuloma annulare was present at the periphery of eight cases. Special stains revealed that most of the eosinophilic material was collagen and mucin was present in eleven cases. In sum these findings demonstrate that pseudorheumatoid nodules in adults are a distinct clinical and pathologic entity, which may be mistaken for rheumatoid nodules. They are probably a juxta-articular variant of granuloma annulare.

Bilateral and subcutaneous palmar nodules in a 2-year-old child suggesting deep granuloma annulare

Granuloma annulare is a benign, relatively common dermatosis in childhood. The subcutaneous form is rare, and lesions typically occur on the legs, buttocks and scalp. We report a case of a deep granuloma annulare confined to the palms of the hands in a 2-year-old child.

Granuloma annulare in the hand

A review of our cases of granuloma annulare in the hand revealed that it presented as either an annular or subcutaneous lesion, most commonly on the dorsum of the metacarpophalangeal joint of the middle or ring fingers. Lesions were approximately 10 mm in diameter and the diagnosis was confirmed by surgical biopsy. The majority of cases resolved spontaneously within 1 year, and recurrence, though common, did not necessitate a further biopsy.

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare in childhood: clinicopathologic features in 34 cases

OBJECTIVE

To gather clinicopathologic data on subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA), a subtype of granuloma annulare that occurs exclusively in children and is histologically similar to rheumatoid nodules.

DESIGN

Retrospective record review.

PATIENTS

Children <10 years old in whom SGA, deep granuloma annulare, or necrobiotic granuloma was diagnosed at the Mayo Clinic (Rochester, MN) from 1983 to 1998.

RESULTS

Thirty-four patients (21 girls and 13 boys; average age at diagnosis: 4.6 years) were found to have SGA. The lesions predominantly occurred in the lower extremity, especially in a pretibial location. Local recurrence within 1 month to 7 years was documented in 38.2%; recurrence at other locations was documented in 14.7%. Average follow-up was 60 months; during follow-up, no patients developed signs or symptoms of rheumatologic disease. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus was diagnosed in 2 patients, 1 before the development of SGA and 1 after it by 1 month.

CONCLUSIONS

SGA is a lesion that presents as subcutaneous nodules on the lower extremities, hands, or scalp in young children. Recurrence is common but usually does not warrant additional biopsy.

Subcutaneous granuloma annulare: MR imaging features in six children and literature review

PURPOSE

To describe the magnetic resonance (MR) imaging findings of subcutaneous granuloma annulare (SGA), a rare mass of early childhood.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MR imaging studies and clinical records in six children aged 2 1/2-4 years in whom SGA was diagnosed between 1993 and 1997 were retrospectively reviewed. All MR imaging examinations included T1-weighted and fast spin-echo T2-weighted sequences. Three children received intravenous contrast material. The diagnosis was established by using excisional biopsy results, with confirmation by means of characteristic features in mucin-stained specimens.

RESULTS

All children presented with a nontender, nonmobile mass. The lesion in all six children was confined to the pretibial (n = 5) or prepatellar (n = 1) soft tissues. MR imaging characteristics were uniform. Masses were subcutaneous in location and had ill-defined margins. On T1-weighted images, the lesion was isointense or slightly hyperintense to muscle. On T2-weighted images, the signal intensity was more heterogeneous, but the lesion was predominantly hyperintense. In three children who received contrast material, the lesion enhanced nearly homogeneously.

CONCLUSION

Although SGA can often be diagnosed on the basis of clinical characteristics, MR imaging may be requested by practitioners unfamiliar with the lesion. In these cases, with recognition of typical MR imaging features, a limited biopsy and specific histologic preparation that includes mucin staining can be recommended.