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Abu-Raya B, Maertens K, Munoz FM, Zimmermann P, Curtis N, Halperin SA, Rots N, Barug D, Holder B, Rice TF, Kampmann B, Leuridan E, Sadarangani M. Factors affecting antibody responses to immunizations in infants born to women immunized against pertussis in pregnancy and unimmunized women: Individual-Participant Data Meta-analysis. Vaccine 2021; 39:6545-6552. [PMID: 34598822 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exploring factors that affect immune responses to immunizations in infants born to women immunized with tetanus-diphtheria-acellular-pertussis (Tdap) in pregnancy compared with unimmunized women is important in designing immunization programs. METHODS Individual-participant data meta-analysis of 8 studies reporting post-immunization immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels to vaccine antigens in infants born to either women immunized with Tdap in pregnancy or unimmunized women, using mixed-effects models. RESULTS In infants of Tdap-immunized women, two-fold higher levels of anti-pertussis toxin (PT) and anti-diphtheria-toxoid (DT) IgG pre-primary immunization were associated with 9% and 10% lower post-primary immunization levels, (geometric mean ratio [GMR], PT: 0.91; 95% CI, 0.88-0.95,n = 494, DT: 0.9; 0.87-0.93,n = 519). Timing of immunization in pregnancy did not affect post-primary immunization anti-Bordetella pertussis, anti-tetanus-toxoid (TT) and anti-DT IgG levels. Spacing of infant immunization did not affect post-primary immunization anti-B. pertussis and anti-DT levels. In infants of Tdap-immunized women, two-fold higher levels of anti-PT and anti-filamentous haemagglutinin (FHA) IgG pre-primary immunization were associated with lower post-booster immunization levels, (GMR, PT: 0.91; 0.85-0.97,n = 224, FHA: 0.92; 0.85-0.99,n = 232). Timing of immunization in pregnancy did not affect post-booster immunization anti-Bordetella pertussis, anti-tetanus-toxoid (TT) and anti-DT IgG levels. Spacing of infant immunization did not affect post-booster immunization anti-PT, anti-pertactin (PRN), anti-TT and anti-DT IgG levels. In infants of unimmunized women, two-fold higher IgG levels of some vaccine antigens pre-primary immunization were associated with 8-17% lower post-primary immunization levels (GMR, PT 0.92, 95% CI:0.88-0.97, n = 373; FHA:0.88, 95% CI:0.85-0.92,n = 378; PRN:0.84, 95% CI:0.81-0.88, n = 367; TT:0.88, 95% CI:0.83-0.93, n = 241; DT: 0.83, 95% CI:0.79-0.87,n = 278). Two-fold higher levels of anti-FHA IgG pre-primary immunization were associated with 8% lower post-booster immunization levels (GMR, 0.92; 95% CI: 0.86-0.99,n = 138). DISCUSSION Increased IgG levels pre-primary immunization is associated with reduced post-primary and post-booster immunization levels for some antigens in infants of women immunized or unimmunized in pregnancy, but their clinical significance is uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahaa Abu-Raya
- Vaccine Evaluation Center, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
| | - Kirsten Maertens
- Centre for the Evaluation of Vaccination, Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Institute, University of Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Flor M Munoz
- Departments of Pediatrics and Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Petra Zimmermann
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne and Infectious Diseases Research Group, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Parkville, Australia; Department of Pediatrics, Fribourg Hospital HFR and Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Nigel Curtis
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne and Infectious Diseases Research Group, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Scott A Halperin
- Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Departments of Pediatrics and Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Izaak Walton Killam Health Centre, and Nova Scotia Health Authority, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Nynke Rots
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Daan Barug
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Beth Holder
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Institute of Reproductive and Developmental Biology, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom; Section of Paediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas F Rice
- Section of Paediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Beate Kampmann
- Vaccines and Immunity Theme, Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Fajara, Gambia; The Vaccine Centre, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elke Leuridan
- Centre for the Evaluation of Vaccination, Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Institute, University of Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Manish Sadarangani
- Vaccine Evaluation Center, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Saso A, Kampmann B, Roetynck S. Vaccine-Induced Cellular Immunity against Bordetella pertussis: Harnessing Lessons from Animal and Human Studies to Improve Design and Testing of Novel Pertussis Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:877. [PMID: 34452002 PMCID: PMC8402596 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9080877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pertussis ('whooping cough') is a severe respiratory tract infection that primarily affects young children and unimmunised infants. Despite widespread vaccine coverage, it remains one of the least well-controlled vaccine-preventable diseases, with a recent resurgence even in highly vaccinated populations. Although the exact underlying reasons are still not clear, emerging evidence suggests that a key factor is the replacement of the whole-cell (wP) by the acellular pertussis (aP) vaccine, which is less reactogenic but may induce suboptimal and waning immunity. Differences between vaccines are hypothesised to be cell-mediated, with polarisation of Th1/Th2/Th17 responses determined by the composition of the pertussis vaccine given in infancy. Moreover, aP vaccines elicit strong antibody responses but fail to protect against nasal colonisation and/or transmission, in animal models, thereby potentially leading to inadequate herd immunity. Our review summarises current knowledge on vaccine-induced cellular immune responses, based on mucosal and systemic data collected within experimental animal and human vaccine studies. In addition, we describe key factors that may influence cell-mediated immunity and how antigen-specific responses are measured quantitatively and qualitatively, at both cellular and molecular levels. Finally, we discuss how we can harness this emerging knowledge and novel tools to inform the design and testing of the next generation of improved infant pertussis vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Saso
- The Vaccine Centre, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1 7HT, UK; (B.K.); (S.R.)
- Vaccines and Immunity Theme, MRC Unit, The Gambia at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Banjul P.O. Box 273, The Gambia
| | - Beate Kampmann
- The Vaccine Centre, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1 7HT, UK; (B.K.); (S.R.)
- Vaccines and Immunity Theme, MRC Unit, The Gambia at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Banjul P.O. Box 273, The Gambia
| | - Sophie Roetynck
- The Vaccine Centre, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1 7HT, UK; (B.K.); (S.R.)
- Vaccines and Immunity Theme, MRC Unit, The Gambia at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Banjul P.O. Box 273, The Gambia
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Abstract
The neonatal period and early infancy are times of increased vulnerability to infection. The immune system of infants undergoes rapid changes and a number of factors can influence the maturation and function of the early infant immune system, amongst these factors are maternal infections and immunity. Infants who are HIV-exposed, but uninfected show important immune alterations, which are likely to be associated with the increased morbidity and mortality observed in these infants. Maternally derived antibodies are crucial in early life to protect infants from infection during the time when their own immune system is becoming more experienced and fully mature. However, maternal antibodies can also interfere with the infant's own antibody responses to primary vaccination. Preterm infants are particularly vulnerable to infection, having not had the opportunity to benefit from the transplacental transfer of maternal antibodies in late pregnancy. In addition, further differences have been observed in the innate and adaptive immune system between preterm and term infants. Here, we focus on maternal influences on the infant immune system, using HIV and maternal vaccination as examples and finish by considering how prematurity impacts infant immune responses to vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Zimmermann
- From the Department of Paediatrics, Fribourg Hospital HFR and Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
- Infectious Diseases Research Group, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia
| | - Christine E Jones
- Faculty of Medicine and Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton and NIHR Southampton Clinical Research Facility and NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, United Kingdom
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van der Maas NAT, Sanders EAM, Versteegh FGA, Baauw A, Westerhof A, de Melker HE. Pertussis hospitalizations among term and preterm infants: clinical course and vaccine effectiveness. BMC Infect Dis 2019; 19:919. [PMID: 31664950 PMCID: PMC6820906 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-019-4563-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pertussis causes severe disease in young unvaccinated infants, with preterms potentially at highest risk. We studied pertussis in hospitalized infants as related to gestational age (GA) and vaccination history. METHODS Medical record data of 0-2y old patients hospitalized for pertussis during 2005-2014 were linked to vaccination data. Multivariable logistic regression was used to study the association between GA and vaccination history on the clinical disease course. We compared vaccine effectiveness (VE) against hospitalization for pertussis between term and preterm infants (i.e., <37w GA) using the screening method as developed by Farrington. RESULTS Of 1187 records, medical data from 676 were retrieved. Of these, 12% concerned preterms, whereas they are 8% of Dutch birth cohorts. Median age at admission was 3 m for preterms and 2 m for terms (p < 0.001). Preterms more often had received pertussis vaccination (62% vs 44%; p = 0.01) and more often had coinfections (37% vs 21%; p = 0.01). Preterms tended more often to have complications, to require artificial respiration or to need admittance to the intensive care unit (ICU). Preterms had longer ICU stays (15d vs 9d; p = 0.004). Vaccinated preterms and terms had a lower median length of hospital stay and lower crude risks of apneas and the need for artificial respiration, additional oxygen, and ICU admittance than those not vaccinated. After adjustment for presence of coinfections and age at admittance, these differences were not significant, except the lower need of oxygen treatment in vaccinated terms. Effectiveness of the first vaccination against pertussis hospitalizations was 95% (95% CI 93-96%) and 73% (95% CI 20-91%) in terms and preterms, respectively. Effectiveness of the second dose of the primary vaccination series was comparable in both groups (86 and 99%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS Infants hospitalized for pertussis suffer from severe disease. Preterms were overrepresented, with higher need for intensive treatment and less VE of first vaccination. These findings stress the need for alternative prevention, in particular prenatal vaccination of mothers, to reduce pertussis in both groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoline A T van der Maas
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, PObox 1, 3720BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Elisabeth A M Sanders
- Department of Paediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Hospital Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Florens G A Versteegh
- University of Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen/Beatrix Children's Hospital, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Albertine Baauw
- Department of Paediatrics, Rijnstate Hospital, Arnhem, the Netherlands
| | - Anneke Westerhof
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, PObox 1, 3720BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Hester E de Melker
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, PObox 1, 3720BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Abstract
There is substantial variation between individuals in the immune response to vaccination. In this review, we provide an overview of the plethora of studies that have investigated factors that influence humoral and cellular vaccine responses in humans. These include intrinsic host factors (such as age, sex, genetics, and comorbidities), perinatal factors (such as gestational age, birth weight, feeding method, and maternal factors), and extrinsic factors (such as preexisting immunity, microbiota, infections, and antibiotics). Further, environmental factors (such as geographic location, season, family size, and toxins), behavioral factors (such as smoking, alcohol consumption, exercise, and sleep), and nutritional factors (such as body mass index, micronutrients, and enteropathy) also influence how individuals respond to vaccines. Moreover, vaccine factors (such as vaccine type, product, adjuvant, and dose) and administration factors (schedule, site, route, time of vaccination, and coadministered vaccines and other drugs) are also important. An understanding of all these factors and their impacts in the design of vaccine studies and decisions on vaccination schedules offers ways to improve vaccine immunogenicity and efficacy.
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Abstract
Preterm infants are at an increased risk of morbidity and mortality from vaccine-preventable diseases. Despite this, delays in routine immunization of preterm infants are common. Available guidelines clearly state that they should be immunized according to chronological age, irrespective of gestational age and birth weight or current weight. In this article, we try to assuage parental and provider doubts by reviewing data about immunogenicity, safety, and responses to routine immunizations in preterm infants with and without comorbidities. We also look at evidence for other strategies to help protect this fragile population. [Pediatr Ann. 2018;47(4):e147-e153.].
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Arreola Ramírez G, Cerda Ojinaga L, García-Alonso Themann P, Fernández Carrocera L. Estado de la vacunación en prematuros menores de 1500 g nacidos entre 2004 y 2007 en una institución de tercer nivel de atención. PERINATOLOGÍA Y REPRODUCCIÓN HUMANA 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rprh.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
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Abstract
Vaccinations of premature infants are often delayed despite being at an increased risk of contracting vaccine preventable diseases. This article reviews the current knowledge on the immune response to widely used vaccines, on the protection derived from routine immunization and on vaccine safety and tolerability in a population of preterm infants. Available data evaluating the immune response of preterm infants support early immunization without correction for gestational age. For a number of antigens, the antibody response to initial doses of vaccines may be lower than that of term infants, but protective concentrations are often achieved and memory successfully induced. Vaccines are immunogenic, safe and well tolerated in preterm infants. Preterm infants should be vaccinated using the same schedules as those usually recommended for full-term infants, with the exception of the hepatitis B vaccine, where additional doses should be administered in infants receiving the first dose during the first days of life if they weighed less than 2000 g because of a documented reduced immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Gagneur
- a Department of Pediatrics ; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke ; Sherbrooke , Québec , Canada
| | - Didier Pinquier
- b Rouen University Hospital ; Neonatal Pediatric and Intensive Care Department ; IHU, EA4309, Charles Nicolle Hospital, Rouen , France
| | - Caroline Quach
- c Departments of Pediatrics and Epidemiology ; Biostatistics & Occupational Health, McGill University ; Montreal , Quebec , Canada
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Gaudelus J, Pinquier D, Romain O, Thiebault G, Vie le Sage F, Dommergues M, Hau I, Bakhache P, Virey B, Dufour V, Parez N, Guerin N, Aujard Y, Weil-Olivier C, Cohen R. Le nouveau calendrier vaccinal est-il adapté à l’ancien prématuré ? Arch Pediatr 2014; 21:1062-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arcped.2014.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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10
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van den Berg JP, Westerbeek EAM, van der Klis FRM, Berbers GAM, Lafeber HN, van Elburg RM. Neutral and acidic oligosaccharides supplementation does not increase the vaccine antibody response in preterm infants in a randomized clinical trial. PLoS One 2013; 8:e70904. [PMID: 23951035 PMCID: PMC3738516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In preterm infants, a decreased immunological response and lower serological effectiveness are observed after immunizations due to ineffectiveness of both humoral and cellular immune mechanisms. OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of 80% neutral oligosaccharides [small-chain galacto-oligosaccharides/long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides (scGOS/lcFOS)] in combination with 20% pectin-derived acidic oligosaccharides (pAOS) on antibody concentrations after DTaP-IPV-Hib immunization in preterm infants. DESIGN In this randomized clinical trial, preterm infants with gestational age <32 weeks and/or birth weight <1500 g received enteral supplementation with scGOS/lcFOS/pAOS or placebo (maltodextrin) between days 3 and 30 of life. Blood samples were collected at 5 and 12 months of age. RESULTS In total, 113 infants were included. Baseline and nutritional characteristics were not different in both groups. Geometric mean titers were not different after prebiotic supplementation at 5 months, Ptx (37/44 EU/ml), FHA (78/96 EU/ml), Prn (78/80 EU/ml), Diphtheria (0.40/0.57 IU/ml), Tetanus (0.74/0.99 IU/ml) and Hib (0.35/0.63 µg/ml), and at 12 months Ptx (55/66 EU/ml), FHA (122/119 EU/ml), Prn (116/106 Eu/ml), Diphtheria (0.88/1.11 IU/ml), Tetanus (1.64/1.79 IU/ml) and Hib (2.91/2.55 µg/ml). CONCLUSIONS Enteral supplementation of neutral (scGOS/lcFOS) and acidic oligosaccharides (pAOS) does not improve the immunization response in preterm infants. TRIAL REGISTRATION Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN16211826 ISRCTN16211826.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolice P. van den Berg
- Department of Paediatrics, Division of Neonatology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth A. M. Westerbeek
- Department of Paediatrics, Division of Neonatology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fiona R. M. van der Klis
- Laboratory for Infectious Diseases and Screening, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Guy A. M. Berbers
- Laboratory for Infectious Diseases and Screening, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Harrie N. Lafeber
- Department of Paediatrics, Division of Neonatology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ruurd M. van Elburg
- Department of Paediatrics, Division of Neonatology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Specialised Nutrition Danone Research Wageningen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Vermeulen F, Dirix V, Verscheure V, Damis E, Vermeylen D, Locht C, Mascart F. Persistence at one year of age of antigen-induced cellular immune responses in preterm infants vaccinated against whooping cough: comparison of three different vaccines and effect of a booster dose. Vaccine 2013; 31:1981-6. [PMID: 23429006 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Revised: 01/27/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Due to their high risk of developing severe Bordetella pertussis (Bp) infections, it is recommended to immunize preterm infants at their chronological age. However, little is known about the persistence of their specific immune responses, especially of the cellular responses recognized to play a role in protection. We compared here the cellular immune responses to two major antigens of Bp between three groups of one year-old children born prematurely, who received for their primary vaccination respectively the whole cell vaccine Tetracoq(®) (TC), the acellular vaccine Tetravac(®) (TV), or the acellular vaccine Infanrix-hexa(®) (IR). Whereas most children had still detectable IFN-γ responses at one year of age, they were lower in the IR-vaccinated children compared to the two other groups. In contrast, both the TV- and the IR-vaccinated children displayed higher Th2-type immune responses, resulting in higher antigen-specific IFN-γ/IL-5 ratios in TC- than in TV- or IR-vaccinated children. The IFN-γ/IL-5 ratio of mitogen-induced cytokines was also lower in IR- compared to TC- or TV-vaccinated children. No major differences in the immune responses were noted after the booster compared to the pre-booster responses for each vaccine. The IR-vaccinated children had a persistently low specific Th1-type immune response associated with high specific Th2-type immune responses, resulting in lower antigen-specific IFN-γ/IL-5 ratios compared to the two other groups. We conclude that antigen-specific cellular immune responses persisted in one year-old children born prematurely and vaccinated during infancy at their chronological age, that a booster dose did not significantly boost the cellular immune responses, and that the Th1/Th2 balance of the immune responses is modulated by the different vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Vermeulen
- Pediatric Department, Université Libre de Bruxelles (U.L.B.), Brussels, Belgium
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Wilson K, Hawken S. Incidence of adverse events in premature children following 2-month vaccination. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2012; 8:592-5. [PMID: 22634444 DOI: 10.4161/hv.19377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a population based self-controlled case series study design we examined data on 834,740 children in the province of Ontario, Canada. We observed that when comparing to SGA10 term children (term children born in the lowest 10th percentile of weight for a given gestational age), relative incidence of emergency room visits and admission in the 3 d post 2 mo vaccination progressively decreased in near term (relative incidence ratio 0.89 (95% CI 0.74-1.07)) and very premature children [(0.67(0.49-0.93)]. When compared with all term children this decrease in risk is not statistically significant. We speculate that the immune response is reduced in premature children resulting in reduced adverse events. This is masked when comparing to all term children because the reduced birth weight of premature children results in a comparatively increased dose of vaccine. This in turn results in an increased immune response and risk of immediate adverse reactions. Future studies of immune response in premature children should examine the impact of weight at the time of immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumanan Wilson
- Department of Medicine, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.
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13
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Abstract
In summary, immunizations in special populations require understanding the underlying disease and how it might affect the immune system's ability to mount an antibody response to vaccines or predispose certain patient populations to developing certain serious infections. There is still a great need for research on the optimal timing of vaccines after transplants, how to assess protection and development of a protective antibody response after immunization, and whether certain groups (eg, HIV) need to be revaccinated after a certain amount of time if their antibody levels decline. In addition, there are limited data on efficacy of the newer vaccines in these special patient populations, which also requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Miller
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Florida, Jacksonville, 32209, USA
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Wilson K, Hawken S, Kwong JC, Deeks SL, Manuel DG, Henningsen KH, Crowcroft NS. Impact of birth weight at term on rates of emergency room visits and hospital admissions following vaccination at 2 months of age. Vaccine 2011; 29:8267-74. [PMID: 21907256 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.08.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Birth weight of children born at term may theoretically be associated with risk of adverse events from immunization. METHODS We analyzed data on children born between April 1st 2002 and March 31st 2009 in the province of Ontario. Using the self-controlled case series design, we examined the risk of the combined endpoint of emergency room visit and hospital admission in the immediate three days post vaccination at 2 months of age compared to a control period 9-18 days after vaccination. In term children, we conducted 4 comparisons of relative incidence (RI) of events: (1) 4 lower birth weight quintiles compared to the largest quintile (2) SGA10 infants compared to non SGA10 infants, (3) low birth weight infants (<2500g) compared to non low birth weight infants and (4) SGA10 infants vaccinated before 60 days compared to those vaccinated after 60 days. RESULTS There was a significant trend towards increasing relative incidence of the combined endpoint with decreasing birth weight quintile (p=0.016). There was an increased relative incidence of events in SGA10 versus non SGA10 infants (RI 1.25 (95% CI 1.09-1.44)) and in SGA10 children vaccinated before 60 days of age compared to after 60 days of age (RI 1.57 (95% CI 1.14-2.18)). No significant effect was observed in low birth weight children. The impact of birth weight was primarily mediated through an increase in ER visits in the 24h following vaccination. CONCLUSION Lower birth weight appears to be correlated with an increased risk of emergency room visits within 24h of vaccination. The absolute risk is small and there was no impact on admissions or death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumanan Wilson
- Department of Medicine, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Canada.
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Cellular immune responses of preterm infants after vaccination with whole-cell or acellular pertussis vaccines. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2009; 17:258-62. [PMID: 20016042 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00328-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Based on studies reporting specific antibody titers, it is recommended to vaccinate preterm infants against Bordetella pertussis according to their chronological age. However, as specific T-cell responses also are involved in the protection against B. pertussis, we have determined whether highly preterm infants (<31 weeks) are able to mount these immune responses during vaccination. Forty-eight premature infants were vaccinated at 2, 3, and 4 months of their chronological age with an acellular (Pa; n = 24) or a whole-cell (Pw; n = 24) tetravalent diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-polio vaccine, and blood samples were collected at 2, 3, and 6 months of age. Most of the Pa- and Pw-vaccinated infants developed at 3 or 6 months of age a gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) response to the B. pertussis antigens, accompanied by an interleukin-5 (IL-5) and IL-13 secretion for the Pa-vaccinated infants. No association was found between a very low infant birth weight, the occurrence of severe infections, and corticosteroid treatment or the administration of gammaglobulins with a low level of antigen-induced IFN-gamma secretion. We conclude that like full-term infants, most preterm infants are able to mount a specific cellular immune response to the administration of the first doses of an acellular or a whole-cell pertussis vaccine.
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Impfungen von Frühgeborenen. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s00112-009-1978-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Hviid A. Effectiveness of two pertussis vaccines in preterm Danish children. Vaccine 2009; 27:3035-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Revised: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abstract
A critical level of serum IgG pertussis toxin antibody is both essential and sufficient to confer individual and herd immunity to pertussis. Monocomponent pertussis toxoid conferred such immunity in Sweden and in Denmark. We refute the notion that filamentous hemagglutinin, pertactin, and fimbriae add to the immunity conferred by pertussis toxoid and describe the artifact created when efficacy is estimated for multicomponent pertussis vaccines. Lastly, the genetically-inactivated mutant pertussis toxoid is safer, more immunogenic, and should be more effective than the current chemically-inactivated pertussis toxin.
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Batra JS, Eriksen EM, Zangwill KM, Lee M, Marcy SM, Ward JI. Evaluation of vaccine coverage for low birth weight infants during the first year of life in a large managed care population. Pediatrics 2009; 123:951-8. [PMID: 19255025 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2008-0231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There are few recent population-based assessments of vaccine coverage in premature infants available. This study assesses and compares age- and dose-specific immunization coverage in children of different birth weight categories during the first year of life. METHODS We performed a retrospective cohort analysis of computerized vaccination data from a large managed care organization in southern California. The participants were children born between January 1, 1997, and December 31, 2002, and continuously enrolled from birth to at least 12 months of age in the Southern California Kaiser Permanente health plan. We measured age-specific up-to-date and age-appropriate immunization rates according to birth weight (extremely low birth weight: <1000 g; very low birth weight: 1000-1499 g; low birth weight: 1500-2499 g; normal birth weight: >/=2500 g) for 4 vaccines (hepatitis B, diphtheria and tetanus toxoids with pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae type b, and poliovirus) through the first year of life. RESULTS We identified 127 833 infants born during the study period and continuously enrolled through the first year of life; 120 048 were normal birth weight infants; 6491 were low birth weight infants; 788 were very low birth weight infants; and 506 were extremely low birth weight infants. Vaccine-specific age-appropriate immunization rates were 3% to 15% lower for low birth weight infants and 17% to 33% lower for extremely low birth weight infants compared with the rates for normal birth weight infants in the first 6 months of life. Extremely low birth weight infants had the lowest age-specific up-to-date immunization levels (5%-31% lower) compared with normal birth weight infants at each age assessed. By 12 months, extremely low birth weight infants still had significantly lower up-to-date levels (87%) compared with very low birth weight, low birth weight, and normal birth weight infants (91%-92%). CONCLUSIONS Despite recommendations that lower birth weight infants be vaccinated as the same chronological age as normal birth weight infants, extremely low birth weight and very low birth weight infants are immunized at significantly lower rates relative to low birth weight and normal birth weight infants at 2, 4, and 6 months of age. However, by 12 months of age this finding persists only in extremely low birth weight infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jagmohan S Batra
- Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Liu Research Building, 1124 W Carson St, Torrance, CA 90502, USA.
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Cooper PA, Madhi SA, Huebner RE, Mbelle N, Karim SSA, Kleinschmidt I, Forrest BD, Klugman KP. Apnea and its possible relationship to immunization in ex-premature infants. Vaccine 2008; 26:3410-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Revised: 04/11/2008] [Accepted: 04/16/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Gad A, Shah S. Special immunization considerations of the preterm infant. J Pediatr Health Care 2007; 21:385-91. [PMID: 17980805 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedhc.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2007] [Revised: 05/01/2007] [Accepted: 05/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
More changes to the American Academy of Pediatrics Recommended Immunization Schedule have occurred in the past 3 years than in the previous decade. Selection of the optimal immunization regimen is essential to forestall immunization delay. New complications to the schedule pose challenges for the care of preterm infants who are at increased risk of mortality and morbidity from vaccine-preventable diseases. This article reviews the relevant data regarding immunization of preterm infants and suggests strategies for prevention of immunization delay. Protection of preterm infants, especially for pertussis and influenza, involves not just assessing a child's vaccination status but those of other close contacts and household members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashraf Gad
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, HSCT11060, Stony Brook University Medical Center, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8111, USA.
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McAlvin B, Clabby ML, Kirshbom PM, Kanter KR, Kogon BE, Mahle WT. Routine Immunizations and Adverse Events in Infants With Single-Ventricle Physiology. Ann Thorac Surg 2007; 84:1316-9. [PMID: 17888989 DOI: 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2007.04.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2007] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 04/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infants with single-ventricle congenital heart defects are at risk of sudden unexpected death. In an effort to decrease the risk of sudden death, some centers have advocated that routine immunizations be deferred in this population. However, it is not known if an association exists between immunizations and adverse events. METHODS The present study examined the relationship of routine immunizations with adverse events, which were defined as sudden death or hospital readmission. The diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis (DTaP) vaccine was considered in the analysis. The patient population consisted of infants younger than 9 months old who resided locally and had not yet undergone bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis (BCPA). Immunization data were obtained from a mandatory statewide database. RESULTS During a 35-month period, 137 patients with single-ventricle physiology were discharged home after neonatal surgery or directly from the newborn nursery. Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) was the diagnosis in 58 patients (42%) and was the most common. In the entire cohort, there were four sudden deaths (3%), and 53 patients (38%) had at least one interval hospital admission. Immunization within 48 hours was not associated with adverse events (odds ratio, 1.48; 95% confidence interval, 0.73 to 2.90; p = 0.31). No sudden death events occurred within 48 hours of immunization. CONCLUSIONS No association could be identified between routine immunizations and adverse events in infants with single-ventricle physiology. As such, the proposal to alter the immunization regimen in this population does not appear justified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian McAlvin
- Sibley Heart Center Cardiology, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Pourcyrous M, Korones SB, Arheart KL, Bada HS. Primary immunization of premature infants with gestational age <35 weeks: cardiorespiratory complications and C-reactive protein responses associated with administration of single and multiple separate vaccines simultaneously. J Pediatr 2007; 151:167-72. [PMID: 17643770 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.02.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2006] [Revised: 12/29/2006] [Accepted: 02/21/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the incidence of cardiorespiratory events and abnormal C-reactive protein (CRP) level associated with administration of a single vaccine or multiple separate vaccines simultaneously. STUDY DESIGN Prospective observational study on 239 preterm infants at > or =2 months of age in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Each infant received either a single vaccine or multiple vaccines on one day. CRP levels and cardiorespiratory manifestations were monitored for 3 days following immunization. RESULTS Abnormal elevation of CRP level occurred in 85% of infants administered multiple vaccines and up to 70% of those given a single vaccine. Overall, 16% of infants had vaccine-associated cardiorespiratory events within 48 hours postimmunization. In logistic regression analysis, abnormal CRP values were associated with multiple vaccines (OR, 15.77; 95% CI 5.10-48.77) and severe intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) (OR, 2.28; 95% CI 1.02-5.13). Cardiorespiratory events were associated marginally with receipt of multiple injections (OR, 3.62; 95% CI 0.99-13.25) and significantly with gastroesophageal reflux (GER) (OR, 4.76; 95% CI 1.22-18.52). CONCLUSION CRP level is expected to be elevated in the 48 hours following immunization. In a minority of infants immunized, cardiorespiratory events were associated with presumed need for intervention. Underlying medical conditions and possibly multiple injections are associated with cardiorespiratory events. Precautionary monitoring following immunizations is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massroor Pourcyrous
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA.
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D'Angio CT. Active immunization of premature and low birth-weight infants: a review of immunogenicity, efficacy, and tolerability. Paediatr Drugs 2007; 9:17-32. [PMID: 17291134 DOI: 10.2165/00148581-200709010-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Preterm infants are at increased risk of disease and hospitalization from a number of vaccine-preventable diseases. However, these same infants have immunologic immaturities that may impact vaccine responses. Larger premature infants mount immune responses to vaccines similar to those of full-term infants, but very premature infants (<28-32 weeks' gestation at birth) may have specific defects in vaccine responsiveness. Although there are minor differences in immunogenicity, the immune responses to diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, and polio antigens are similar enough between full-term and premature infants that clinical consequences are unlikely to result. However, the immunogenicity of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines varies widely among studies of premature infants, and may be affected by the choice of conjugate protein, inclusion in a combination vaccine, and by an infant's overall health. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is efficacious in larger premature infants, but little information is available about immunogenicity in smaller premature infants. Meningococcal group C conjugate vaccine appears immunogenic in even very premature infants, but the duration of immunity may be limited. Hepatitis B vaccine given at birth appears poorly immunogenic in infants with birth weights <1500-2000 g, with delay in the administration of the first dose yielding improved immunogenicity. Few data on influenza vaccine in premature infants are available, but infants with pulmonary disease may respond less robustly than others. Bacille Calmette Guérin vaccine appears to be most immunogenic if delayed until at least 34-35 weeks' postmenstrual age in very premature infants, although there may be non-specific advantages to its earlier administration. Premature infants may have persistently lower antibody titers than full-term infants, even years after initial immunization. Sick premature infants experience increased episodes of apnea or cardiorespiratory compromise following vaccine administration, necessitating careful monitoring. Specific factors that impair immune response, quality of the immune response, and safety and immunogenicity evaluation of new vaccines in premature infants are topics needing further research. Premature infants are at significant risk for decisions from healthcare providers that delay beginning and completing their vaccine regimens. A major challenge facing those who care for these infants is the provision of timely immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl T D'Angio
- Strong Children's Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York, USA.
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Abstract
Premature infants are at increased risk of vaccine preventable infections, but audits have shown that their vaccinations are often delayed. Early protection is desirable. While the evidence base for immunisation of preterm infants is limited, the available data support early immunisation without correction for gestational age. For a number of antigens the antibody response to initial doses may be lower than that of term infants, but protective concentrations are often achieved and memory successfully induced. A 2-3-4 month schedule may be preferable for immunisation of preterm infants in order to achieve protection as early as possible, but an additional dose may be required to achieve persistence of protection. This update focuses on the use of routine childhood vaccines in premature infants.
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Omeñaca F, Garcia-Sicilia J, García-Corbeira P, Boceta R, Romero A, Lopez G, Dal-Ré R. Response of preterm newborns to immunization with a hexavalent diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis-hepatitis B virus-inactivated polio and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine: first experiences and solutions to a serious and sensitive issue. Pediatrics 2005; 116:1292-8. [PMID: 16322149 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2004-2336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Preterm infants are at increased risk from infections and should be vaccinated at the usual chronological age. The aim of the study was to evaluate the immunogenicity and reactogenicity of a hexavalent diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis-hepatitis B virus-inactivated polio and Haemophilus influenzae type b (DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib) vaccine in preterm infants. METHODS In a comparative trial, 94 preterm infants between 24 and 36 weeks (mean +/- SD gestational age: 31.05 +/- 3.45 weeks; mean birth weight: 1420 +/- 600 g) and a control group of 92 full-term infants were enrolled to receive 3 doses of a DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccine at 2, 4, and 6 months. Immunogenicity was assessed in serum samples that were taken before and 4 weeks after primary vaccination. Evaluation of reactogenicity was based on diary cards. RESULTS All preterm (n = 93) and full-term (n = 89) infants who were included in the immunogenicity analysis had seroprotective titers to diphtheria; tetanus; and polio virus types 1, 2, and 3. The immune response to the Hib and hepatitis B components was lower in preterm than in full-term infants: 92.5% versus 97.8% and 93.4% versus 95.2%, respectively. Vaccine response rates for pertussis antigens were >98.9% in both study groups. Although most geometric mean titers were lower in preterm infants, titers were similar for pertussis, a major threat for premature infants. The vaccine was well tolerated, and there were no differences in reactogenicity between groups. Some extremely immature infants experienced transient cardiorespiratory events within the 72 hours after the first vaccination with no clinical repercussion. CONCLUSIONS Preterm infants who were immunized with the hexavalent DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccine at 2, 4, and 6 months displayed good immune response to all antigens. The availability of this vaccine greatly facilitates the vaccination of premature infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Omeñaca
- Department of Neonatology, La Paz Hospital, Madrid, Spain
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai-Rhan E. Kim
- Department of Pediatrics/Division of Neonatology, Ulsan University College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Korea.
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Pfister RE, Aeschbach V, Niksic-Stuber V, Martin BC, Siegrist CA. Safety of DTaP-based combined immunization in very-low-birth-weight premature infants: frequent but mostly benign cardiorespiratory events. J Pediatr 2004; 145:58-66. [PMID: 15238908 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the safety of diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis-inactivated polio-Haemophilus influenzae type B (DTaP-IPV-HIB) immunization in premature infants. STUDY DESIGN Observational study of 78 very low birth weight premature infants (mean gestational age, 28+/-2 weeks; mean birth weight, 1045+/-357 g) given DTaP-IPV-HIB vaccine before hospital discharge. Apnea, bradycardia, oxygen requirements and saturation, feeding practice, and medical interventions were assessed before and after immunization. The results were analyzed by the severity of the clinical condition and the persistence of prematurity-associated symptoms. RESULTS Administration of DTaP-IPV-HIB elicited resurgence or increase in cardiorespiratory events in 47% of infants (15% had apnea, 21% had bradycardia, 42% of desaturations). Most vaccine-triggered events resolved spontaneously or after brief stimulation. The relative risk was 5- to 8-fold higher in infants with a severe clinical course or persistence of cardiorespiratory symptoms at the time of immunization. Bag-mask respiratory support was given to 5 of 78 infants, and O(2) requirements increased transiently in 4 of 21 infants with chronic lung disease, none requiring reventilation. Reintroduction of O(2) supplementation, interruption of active oral feeding, or postponing of hospital discharge was not required. CONCLUSIONS Cardiorespiratory events were frequently increased after DTaP-IPV-HIB immunization, requiring monitoring and appropriate intervention. However, these episodes did not have detrimental impact on the infants' clinical course. Timely immunization is warranted even in the most vulnerable preterm infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo E Pfister
- Division of Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care and WHO Collaborating Centre for Neonatal Vaccinology, Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital of Geneva, Switzerland
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Saari TN. Immunization of preterm and low birth weight infants. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases. Pediatrics 2003; 112:193-8. [PMID: 12837889 DOI: 10.1542/peds.112.1.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Preterm (PT) infants are at increased risk of experiencing complications of vaccine-preventable diseases but are less likely to receive immunizations on time. Medically stable PT and low birth weight (LBW) infants should receive full doses of diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae type b, hepatitis B, poliovirus, and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines at a chronologic age consistent with the schedule recommended for full-term infants. Infants with birth weight less than 2000 g may require modification of the timing of hepatitis B immunoprophylaxis depending on maternal hepatitis B surface antigen status. All PT and LBW infants benefit from receiving influenza vaccine beginning at 6 months of age before the beginning of and during the influenza season. All vaccines routinely recommended during infancy are safe for use in PT and LBW infants. The occurrence of mild vaccine-attributable adverse events are similar in both full-term and PT vaccine recipients. Although the immunogenicity of some childhood vaccines may be decreased in the smallest PT infants, antibody concentrations achieved usually are protective.
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