The incidence of anemia in an Israeli population: a population analysis for anemia in 34,512 Israeli infants aged 9 to 18 months

Reducing infantile anemia: insight on patterns of process and outcome indicators by ethnicity and socioeconomic class during a 10-year intervention program and 5 years after

Background

In 2005, Clalit Health Services (CHS), the largest health maintenance organization in Israel, initiated an intervention program aimed at reducing the prevalence rate of infantile anemia (IA). This study evaluated the progress made during the intervention (2005–2014) and its yield 5 years after it ended (2019).

Methods

The CHS database was retrospectively reviewed twice yearly from 2005 to 2014 for repetitive samples of children aged 9 to 18 months regarding the previous half-year interval, and a single sample in 2019. Data were collected on gender, ethnicity (Jewish/non-Jewish), socioeconomic class (SEC; low/intermediate/high), hemoglobin testing (yes/no), and hemoglobin level (if tested). Excluded were infants with documented or suspected hemoglobinopathy.

Results

At study initiation, the rate of performance of hemoglobin testing was 54.7%, and the IA prevalence rate was 7.8%. The performance rate was lower in the Jewish than the non-Jewish subpopulation. The low-SEC subpopulation had a similar hemoglobin testing rate to the high-SEC subpopulation but double the IA prevalence rate. Overall, by the end of the intervention (2014), the performance rate increased to 87.5%, and the AI prevalence rate decreased to 3.4%. In 2019, there was little change in the performance rate from the end of the intervention (88%) and the IA prevalence was further reduced to 2.7%. The non-Jewish and low-SEC subpopulations showed the most improvement which was maintained and even bettered 5 years after the intervention ended.

Conclusions

The 10-year IA intervention program introduced by CHS in 2005 led to a reduction in IA prevalence rate to about 3.5% in all sub-populations evaluated. By program end, the results in the weaker subpopulations, which had the highest prevalence of IA at baseline, were not inferior to those in the stronger subpopulations. We recommended to the Israel Ministry of Health to adopt the intervention countrywide, and we challenge other countries to consider similar interventions.

Religious dietary rules and their potential nutritional and health consequences

BACKGROUND

The vast majority of the world population declares affiliation to a religion, predominantly Christianity and Islam. Many religions have special dietary rules, which may be more or less strictly adhered to.

METHODS

Religious food rules were collected from holy books and religious websites as well as their translation into dietary practices. The literature was searched for potential associations between these rules and potential nutritional consequences.

RESULTS

Jewish, Islamic and Indian religions support prolonged breastfeeding. Religious avoidance of alcohol is probably beneficial to health. When strictly applied, a few rules may lead to nutritional inadequacies, mainly in populations living in unfavourable socio-economic or environmental conditions. In Jewish and Muslim observants, animal slaughtering procedures may increase the risk of iron deficiency. Jews may be at risk of excess sodium intake related to home-prepared foods. A vegan diet, as observed by some believers, often by drifting from original precepts, or by some Hindus or Buddhists, may result in vitamin B12, calcium, iron, zinc, selenium and n-3 fatty acids deficiencies.

CONCLUSION

When implemented in accordance with the rules, most religious food precepts are not detrimental to health, as suggested by the fact that they have more or less been followed for millennia. Nevertheless, some practices may lead to nutritional inadequacies, such as iron, calcium, vitamin D and vitamin B12 deficiencies. Patients with low socio-economic status, children and women of childbearing age are of particular risk of such deficiencies. Being aware of them should help health professionals to take an individualized approach to decide whether to supplement or not.

The prevalence of iron deficiency anemia among African asylum seeking children residing in Tel Aviv

BACKGROUND

It has been the impression of pediatricians at the Terem Clinic for African asylum seekers in Tel Aviv that they encounter large numbers of anemic children. The objectives of this study were 1) to quantify the prevalence of anemia among African African asylum seeking children treated in the Terem Clinic for refugees in Tel Aviv; 2) to compare it to the rates among Jewish Israeli children; 3) and to correlate it with their nutritional iron intake. Overall, this effort aims at informing changes in policies and practices that will ensure healthy development of African asylum seeking children in Israel.

METHODS

The prevalence of anemia was calculated for all toddlers and children under the age of twelve years visiting the refugee clinic and compared to the recently reported rates of anemia among urban Jewish Israeli children of similar ages; Nutritional iron intake was calculated in a subgroup by a food frequency questionnaire translated to Amharic and Tigrinya.

RESULTS

Mean age of the children (SD) was 2.96 yr. (SD 2.77) and mean hemoglobin 10.88 g/dl (1.47). Out of 386 eligible children, 131(34%) were anemic, fourfold more prevalent than reported among 263 Jewish toddlers and young children of the same age group [(11%), OR 4.15(95% ci 2.67-6.43)]. In a subgroup (n = 26) investigated for amount of daily iron intake, 46.2% did not receive the recommended daily allowance for their age. Nine of them had received iron supplements.

CONCLUSIONS

Low hemoglobin levels are four-fold more prevalent among the African asylum seeking children. The dietary data suggest iron deficiency as a major cause, although other etiologies need to be ruled out. Because of the adverse long term impact of early anemia on child development, new policies need to be developed to ensure that refugee children develop in a healthy manner. These should include routine mandatory supplements of iron for all refugee children, in parallel to developing an educational program for parents how to achieve iron-sufficient diets for their children. Further research is needed to guide public health action for these children.

The safety of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid use during the first trimester of pregnancy

AIMS

The goal of the current study was to assess the risk for major congenital malformations following first-trimester exposure to amoxicillin, or amoxicillin and clavulanic acid (ACA).

METHODS

A population-based retrospective cohort study was conducted, by linking 4 computerized databases: maternal and infant hospitalization records, drug dispensing database of Clalit Health Services in Israel and data concerning pregnancy terminations. Multivariate negative-binomial regression was used to assess the risk for major malformations following first-trimester exposure, adjusted for mother's age, ethnicity (Bedouin vs Jewish), parity, diabetes mellitus, lack of perinatal care, and the year of birth.

RESULTS

The study included 101 615 pregnancies, of which 6919 (6.8%) were exposed to amoxicillin: 1045 (1.0%) to amoxicillin only and 6041 (5.9%) to ACA. No significant association was found, in the univariate and multivariate analyses, between first-trimester exposure to amoxicillin or ACA and major malformations in general (crude relative risk, 1.05 95% confidence interval 0.95-1.16; adjusted relative risk 1.09, 95% confidence interval 0.98-1.20), or for major malformations according to organ systems. No dose-response relationship was found between exposure in terms of the defined daily dose and major malformations.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to amoxicillin and ACA during the first trimester of pregnancy was not associated with an increased risk of major congenital malformations.

Childhood iron deficiency anemia leads to recurrent respiratory tract infections and gastroenteritis

Anemia affects approximately 30% of children all over the world. Acute respiratory tract infections (ARTI), urinary tract infections (UTI) and gastroenteritis (GE) are common infectious entities in children. Here, we assessed the association between anemia and development of recurrent ARTI, UTI, and GE in children. This was a case-control study in hospitalized 2–5 years old children in Professorial Pediatric Unit at Teaching Hospital Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. An 18-month follow up was done to assess the risk factors for the development of recurrent ARTI, GE, UTI, and control presented without infections. Further, 6-month follow up done after 3-month iron supplementation to assess the occurrence of recurrences. Blood Hb concentration was measured using Drabking’s reagent. Logistic regression was used to find the risk factors for the development of recurrences. In ARTI, 121/165 (73.3%), GE, 88/124 (71%), UTI 46/96 (47.9%) and control 40/100 (40%) were having anemia. Initial ARTI group, recurrent ARTI was 24 (14.5%, p = 0.03); initial GE group: recurrent GE was 14 (11.3%, p = 0.03), recurrent ARTI was 11 (8.9%, p = 0.04); initial UTI group, development of; recurrent UTI was 8 (8.3%, p = 0.04); control, recurrent ARTI was 11 (11%, p = 0.03). Following 3-month iron supplementation reduction of recurrences was significant: initial ARTI recurrent ARTI in 90%, recurrent GE in 77.7%; initial GE recurrent GE in 83.3%, recurrent ARTI in 80%; initial UTI recurrent ARTI in 71.4% and control recurrent ARTI in 88.8%. Iron deficiency is a major type of anemia and anemic children are more prone to develop recurrent ARTI and GE. Once iron deficiency being corrected the rate of recurrent ARTI and GE was reduced. This would be a boost for policy developers to implement strategies at the community level to prevent iron deficiency in children to reduce ARTI and GE recurrences.

Universal versus Selective Iron Supplementation for Infants and the Risk of Unintentional Poisoning in Young Children: A Comparative Study of Two Populations

Background:

Iron continues to be a common cause of poisoning in young children, in part due to its widespread use and easy accessibility.

Objective:

To determine differences in the epidemiology and outcome of unintentional iron ingestion by young children in populations practicing selective (eg, US) versus universal (eg, Israel) iron supplementation to infants.

Methods:

All cases of unintentional iron ingestion in children younger than 7 years in a one year period were identified through the poison control center databases of 2 sites (Illinois and Israel). Parameters compared include patient sex and age; type, form, and dose of iron preparation; circumstances and clinical manifestations; management; and outcome.

Results:

A total of 602 children were identified: 459 in Illinois and 143 in Israel. The majority of Illinois children ingested multivitamin preparations (94%), whereas Israeli children ingested single-ingredient iron preparations (78%) (p < 0.001). Iron doses ingested were higher in Israel (median 14.5 vs 6.6 mg/kg; p < 0.001) but remained within the nontoxic range for most children. No deaths or severe poisonings were reported, and 93% of children in both groups were asymptomatic. The majority of ingestions in both locations were due to unintentional self-ingestion. However, parental miscalculation occurred more frequently in Israel (16%) than in Illinois (1%).

Conclusions:

Universal iron supplementation to infants was not associated with a negative impact on the outcome of pediatric unintentional ingestions. Low-dose exposures were safely managed by on-site observation.

Iron Deficiency and Iron-deficiency Anemia in Toddlers Ages 18 to 36 Months: A Prospective Study

In young children, iron deficiency (ID)-the most common cause of anemia-may adversely affect long-term neurodevelopment and behavior. We prospectively evaluated the prevalence of ID and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in 256 healthy 18- to 36-month-old children in Northern Israel. Complete blood count and ferritin evaluation were performed, and risk factors were assessed. Hemoglobin (Hgb) was compared with first-year routine screening. Complete data were obtained from 208 children: 56.2% were boys; the mean age was 26.1±5.27 months. A prevalence of 5.8% IDA, 16.3% ID without anemia, 9.6% anemia with normal ferritin, and 68.3% normal Hgb and ferritin was found. In nonanemic infants at 1 year of age (n=156), ID/IDA was found in 19.9%, and 12.8% became anemic at study evaluation. Despite iron supplementation in the first year, and normal Hgb at first-year screening, ID and IDA were still prevalent, and might develop during the second year of life. Recognition of this child subset and consideration of iron supplementation are mandatory.

The Lack of Association of Iron Deficiency With Anemia in First Graders

Iron-deficiency anemia (IDA) is a disease with worldwide prevalence. The prevalence of IDA and iron deficiency (ID) was ascertained by serum ferritin and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) levels in first graders in Taibe. A total of 1132 first graders were tested for the iron status between the years 1999 and 2004. Serum ferritin, hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit, MCV, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and red and white blood cell counts were checked. Hb<11.5 g/dL, serum ferritin<12 μg/L, and MCV<75 fL were the criteria we chose for establishing IDA, and serum ferritin<12 μg/L and MCV<75 fL for establishing ID. Non-IDA was ascertained by a low Hb value, coupled with normal serum ferritin. The mean value of serum ferritin was 26.6±16.8 μg/L. Eighty-two (11.8%) children had low serum ferritin (<12 μg/L). The mean value of Hb was 12.3±0.8, and 80 (11.5%) of the children had low Hb. A correlation was found between hematological parameters and Hb. The prevalence of IDA, ID, and non-IDA was 2.2%, 11.8%, and 9.4%, respectively. No correlation was found between indices of anemia and demographic characteristics. Non-IDA and ID are prevalent in 5 to 6-year-old Arab children; however, IDA is surprisingly low. We need to look for other causes of anemia in this age group of the population.

Prevalence and determinants of anaemia among children aged 0–59 months in a rural region of Armenia: a case–control study

Objective

Despite the trend of increasing prevalence of childhood anaemia in Armenia, no studies exploring its risk factors have been conducted in the country. The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence and determinants of childhood anaemia in rural Armenia.

Design

Blood Hb level was measured among a representative sample of children using the HemoCue Hb201+ analyser. The revealed cases with anaemia were compared with randomly selected non-anaemic controls. Mothers of cases and controls were interviewed. Logistic and linear regression models were fitted to identify the risk factors of anaemia and low Hb level, respectively.

Setting

Talin communities, Aragatsotn Province, Armenia.

Subjects

Children under 5 years of age in Talin region.

Results

Of the 729 studied children, 32·4 % were anaemic with 14·7 % having moderate/severe anaemia. Infants were the most affected group with 51·1 % being anaemic before 6 months and 67·9 % at 6–12 months of age. Fitted regression models identified the following predictors of anaemia: younger age, male gender, shorter birth length, anaemia during pregnancy, lower meal frequency per day, lack of meat in the diet, using dung cakes for heating and living in a community that received an incomplete set of nutrition interventions.

Conclusions

The study identified several modifiable risk factors that could be targeted to reduce childhood anaemia in rural Armenia and, possibly, in rural areas in other low-/middle-income countries. The suggested interventions include prevention and treatment of anaemia during pregnancy, provision of adequate complementary feeding to children with inclusion of meat in their daily diet and reduction of their exposure to biomass fuel smoke.

Hemoglobin cut-off values in healthy Turkish infants

BACKGROUND

Anemia is a widespread public health problem associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. This study was undertaken to determine the cut-off value of hemoglobin for infant anemia.

METHODS

A cross-sectional retrospective study was carried out at well-baby clinics of a tertiary care hospital. A total of 1484 healthy infants aged between 4 to 24 months were included in the study. The relationship of hemoglobin (Hb) levels with mother age, birth weight, weight gain rate, feeding, and gender was evaluated.

RESULTS

The Hb levels were assessed in four age groups (4 months, 6 months, 9-12 months, and 15-24 months) and the cut-off values of Hb were determined. Hb cut-off values (5th percentile for age) were detected as 97 g/L and 93 g/L at 4 months and 6 months, respectively. In older infants, the 5th percentile was 90.5 g/L and 93.4 g/L at 9-12 months and 15-24 months, respectively. The two values were lower than the World Health Organization criteria for anemia, which could partly due to the lack of information on iron status in our population. However, this difference highlights the need for further studies on normal Hb levels in healthy infants in developing countries. Hb levels of females were higher in all age groups; however, a statistically significant difference was found in gender in only 6 month-old infants. No statistically significant difference was found among Hb levels, mother's age, birth weight, weight gain rate, and nutritional status.

CONCLUSION

Hb cut-off values in infants should be re-evaluated and be compatible with growth and development of children in that community.

Nutritional deficiencies in the pediatric age group in a multicultural developed country, Israel

Nutrient deficiencies are prevalent worldwide. Diseases and morbid conditions have been described to result from nutritional deficiencies. It is essential to address nutrient deficiencies as these may lead to chronic long-term health problems such as rickets, iron deficiency anemia, goiter, obesity, coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, cancer and osteoporosis. In the present review we surveyed the extent and severity of nutritional deficiencies in Israel through a selective and comprehensive Medline review of previous reports and studies performed during the last 40 years. Israeli populations have multiple nutritional deficiencies, including iron, calcium, zinc, folic acid, and vitamins B12, C, D and E, spanning all age groups, several minorities, and specific regions. In Israel, some of the nutrients are mandatorily implemented and many of them are implemented voluntarily by local industries. We suggest ways to prevent and treat the nutritional deficiencies, as a step to promote food fortification in Israel.

Anemia and iron deficiency in children: association with red meat and poultry consumption

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to study the relative contribution of dietary sources of iron in children with high prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency (ID).

METHODS

A cross-sectional study in 263 healthy, 1.5- to 6-year-old children in the Jewish sector of Jerusalem, Israel. Venous blood samples and a qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire on iron-rich foods were obtained. Anemia was defined as hemoglobin <11 g/dL for children younger than 4 years and <11.5 g/dL for children older than 4 years; ID was defined as ferritin <12 μg/L.

RESULTS

Anemia was found in 11.2%, ID in 22%, and iron-deficiency anemia in 3.7%. The prevalence of anemia was higher in toddlers ages 1.5 to 3 years compared with children ages 3 to 6 years (17.7% vs 7.3%, P = 0.01). Children with extremely low red meat consumption (seldom) had 4-fold higher rates of ID than those who consumed ≥2 times per week (odds ratio 3.98; 95% confidence interval 1.21-13.03; P = 0.023), whereas poultry consumption was not associated with ID. Soy consumption was inversely associated with ferritin (marginally significant, r = -0.134, P = 0.057).

CONCLUSIONS

The high prevalence of anemia and ID found in this study, mainly in children 1.5 to 3 years old, is related to low red meat consumption. The characteristically high poultry consumption in the Israeli population was not protective. The shift toward reduced red meat consumption and higher poultry consumption in developed countries may result in increasing the risk of ID.

Major Malformations Following Exposure to Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs During the First Trimester of Pregnancy

Objective.

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAID) are among the most common medicines used by pregnant women. Published data are controversial regarding fetal safety following intrauterine exposure to NSAID. We investigated exposure to NSAID in the first trimester in a large cohort of infants and fetuses.

Methods.

A computerized database of medications dispensed from 1998 to 2009 to all women registered in the “Clalit” health maintenance organization in Southern Israel was linked with 2 computerized databases containing maternal and infant hospitalization records. Pregnancy terminations for medical reasons were analyzed. The following confounders were controlled for: parity, maternal age, ethnicity, maternal pregestational diabetes, maternal inflammatory disease, and year of birth or pregnancy termination. First trimester exposure to nonselective cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors and to selective COX-2 inhibitors as groups and to individual drugs was analyzed.

Results.

There were 110,783 pregnancies during the study period: 109,544 singleton births and 1239 pregnancy terminations for medical reasons. In total, 5267 mothers were exposed to NSAID during the first trimester of pregnancy: 5153 to nonselective COX inhibitors and 114 to COX-2 selective inhibitors. Exposure to NSAID in the first trimester, as groups (nonselective COX and selective COX-2 inhibitors) and as individual drugs, was not associated with an increased risk of major congenital malformations in general (adjusted OR 1.07, 95% CI 0.96−1.21 for nonselective; and adjusted OR 1.40, 95% CI 0.70−2.78, for selective COX-2 inhibitors), although an increased risk for musculoskeletal malformations was found following exposure to COX-2 selective inhibitors (adjusted OR 3.39, 95% CI 1.37−8.34).

Conclusion.

Intrauterine exposure to NSAID was not associated with increased risk for major congenital malformations. Further studies are needed to assess the risk for malformations after exposure to COX-2 selective inhibitors.

Anemia in children with down syndrome

Background. Iron deficiency anemia impacts on cognitive development. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency in children with Down syndrome and identify risk factors for anemia. Methods. We conducted a prolective cross-sectional study of children attending a multidisciplinary Down syndrome medical center. One hundred and forty nine children with Down syndrome aged 0–20 years were enrolled in the study. Information obtained included a medical history, physical and developmental examination, nutritional assessment, and the results of blood tests. Results. Of the patients studied, 8.1% were found to have anemia. Among the 38 children who had iron studies, 50.0% had iron deficiency. In a multivariate analysis, Arab ethnicity and low weight for age were significantly associated with anemia. Gender, height, the presence of an eating disorder, and congenital heart disease were not risk factors for anemia. Conclusions. Children with Down syndrome are at risk for anemia and iron deficiency similar to the general population. Children with Down syndrome should be monitored for anemia and iron deficiency so that prompt intervention can be initiated.

Is the association between Helicobacter pylori infection and anemia age dependent?

BACKGROUND

The relationship between H. pylori infection and anemia in childhood is still unclear. The aim of the study was to examine the association between H. pylori infection and anemia or iron deficiency in school-age children and in infants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six- to 9-year-old Israeli Arab children (N = 202) and infants (N = 197) were examined for hemoglobin and ferritin levels. ELISA was used to detect H. pylori antigens in stool specimens collected from the participants. Household characteristics were obtained through personal interviews with the mothers.

RESULTS

The prevalence of anemia was 15.5 versus 5.5% in H. pylori-positive and -negative school-age children, respectively and 34.5 versus 29.8% in H. pylori-positive and -negative infants, respectively. The Mantel-Haenszel age-adjusted prevalence ratio (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were 1.6 (95%CI 1.0, 2.6). In multivariate analysis controlling for socioeconomic variables, H. pylori infection was associated with 2.8 higher prevalence of anemia only in school-age children: adjusted PR 2.8 (95% CI 0.9, 9.3). The adjusted mean difference in hemoglobin levels between H. pylori infected school-age children and uninfected ones was -0.372 gr/dL (95% CI -0.704, -0.039) (p = .04). The respective mean ferritin difference was -6.74 μg/L (95% CI -13.38, -.011) (p = .04). Such differences were not found in infants.

CONCLUSIONS

H. pylori infection is associated with higher prevalence of anemia in school-age children independently of socioeconomic variables. Such association was not observed in infants. These findings are of clinical and public health importance.

Exposure to folic acid antagonists during the first trimester of pregnancy and the risk of major malformations

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT

* Previous studies have suggested a tendency of antifolate drugs to be associated with higher rates of neural tube defects.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

* This study makes use of the data on abortuses, which is missed in many other studies. In this case, the abortion data were critical. * The study documents that clinicians should avoid, as much as possible, the use of folic acid antagonists during the first trimester of pregnancy, when embryogenesis takes place.

AIM

To investigate the safety of folic acid antagonists during the first trimester of pregnancy in a large cohort.

METHODS

Computerized databases for medications dispensed from 1998 to 2007 to women registered in 'Clalit' HMO, Israel southern district, was linked with maternal and infant hospitalization records, and to therapeutics abortions data. The risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes of folic acid antagonists exposure was assessed by adjusting for known confounders.

RESULTS

Eighty-four thousand, eight hundred and twenty-three infants were born and 998 therapeutic abortions took place; 571 fetuses and infants were exposed to one or more folic acid antagonists in the first trimester of pregnancy. Exposure was associated with an overall increased risk of congenital malformations [odds ratio (OR) 2.43, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.92, 3.08], due mainly to increased risk for neural tube (adjusted OR 6.5, 95% CI 4.34, 9.15) and cardiovascular defects (OR 1.76, CI 1.05, 2.95).

CONCLUSION

First-trimester exposure to folic acid antagonists is associated with increased risk of congenital malformations.

The safety of H(2)-blockers use during pregnancy

Little data exist on the safety of H(2)-blockers during pregnancy. A computerized database of medications dispensed from 1998 to 2007 to all women registered in the "Clalit" health maintenance organization, in the Southern District of Israel, was linked with computerized databases containing maternal and infant hospitalization records from the district hospital. The following confounders were controlled for: parity, maternal age, ethnic group, maternal diabetes, smoking, and peripartum fever. Also, therapeutic pregnancy termination data were analyzed. A total of 117 960 infants were born during the study period, 84 823 of them (72%) to women registered at Clalit; 1148 of the latter were exposed to H(2)-blockers during the first trimester of pregnancy. Exposure to H(2)-blockers was not associated with an increased risk for congenital malformations (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.03, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.80-1.32); also, no such association was found when therapeutic pregnancy terminations were included in the analysis (adjusted OR = 1.17, 95% CI: 0.93-1.46). Exposure to H(2)-blockers was not associated with perinatal mortality, premature delivery, low birth weight, or low Apgar scores.

Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with low serum ferritin levels in Israeli Arab children: a seroepidemiologic study

We examined the association between Helicobacter pylori seropositivity and low ferritin levels in sera of 509 Israeli Arab children aged 1 to 19 years. Serum ferritin levels were measured using the immunoturbidity assay. ELISA was used to detect serum IgG antibodies to H pylori and IgG antibodies to H pylori CagA strains. Low ferritin level was found between 14.5% and 8.6% of the H pylori seropositive and seronegative participants, respectively (P = 0.035). A trend for a higher frequency of low ferritin was detected among H pylori-CagA seropositive children. Multivariate analysis showed an increased frequency of low ferritin only among children younger than or equal to 5 years: adjusted OR 4.62 (95% CI 1.53-13.99) P = 0.007.

The safety of metoclopramide use in the first trimester of pregnancy

BACKGROUND

In various countries, metoclopramide is the antiemetic drug of choice in pregnant women, but insufficient information exists regarding its safety in pregnancy.

METHODS

We investigated the safety of metoclopramide use during the first trimester of pregnancy by linking a computerized database of medications dispensed between January 1, 1998, and March 31, 2007, to all women registered in the Clalit Health Services, southern district of Israel, with computerized databases containing maternal and infant hospital records from the district hospital during the same period. We assessed associations between the use of metoclopramide in pregnancy and adverse outcomes for the fetus, adjusting for parity, maternal age, ethnic group, presence or absence of maternal diabetes, smoking status, and presence or absence of peripartum fever.

RESULTS

There were 113,612 singleton births during the study period. A total of 81,703 of the infants (71.9%) were born to women registered in Clalit Health Services; 3458 of them (4.2%) were exposed to metoclopramide during the first trimester of pregnancy. Exposure to metoclopramide, as compared with no exposure to the drug, was not associated with significantly increased risks of major congenital malformations (5.3% and 4.9%, respectively; odds ratio, 1.04; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.89 to 1.21), low birth weight (8.5% and 8.3%; odds ratio, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.89 to 1.14), preterm delivery (6.3% and 5.9%; odds ratio, 1.15; 95% CI, 0.99 to 1.34), or perinatal death (1.5% and 2.2%; odds ratio, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.55 to 1.38). The results were materially unchanged when therapeutic abortions of exposed and unexposed fetuses were included in the analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large cohort of infants, exposure to metoclopramide in the first trimester was not associated with significantly increased risks of any of several adverse outcomes. These findings provide reassurance regarding the safety of metoclopramide for the fetus when the drug is given to women to relieve nausea and vomiting during pregnancy.

Iron requirements, absorption and metabolism in infancy and childhood

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Iron deficiency is a significant public health problem in young children due to their high iron requirements, and iron supplements are therefore often recommended. During the time period in focus for this review (2005-2006), there have been additional advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of iron absorption and metabolism. It has also been suggested that iron supplements may have adverse effects in children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recently discovered molecules, for example hepcidin, lactoferrin receptor and heme carrier protein may be important for iron metabolism in children. There are possible metabolic interactions between iron and several other minerals. Many studies show that iron deficiency in young children is associated with impaired neurodevelopment but it is not clear whether this can be prevented by iron supplementation. Oral iron supplements given to young children in malarious regions may lead to increased risk of death or severe infections, especially in those who are iron replete.

SUMMARY

More research is needed to identify those children who will benefit from iron supplementation and to better determine iron requirements during early life. Clinical trials should include functional outcomes. Better knowledge about molecular mechanisms and nutrient interactions may lead to new diagnostic tests and preventive strategies.