Time-resolved thermodynamic analysis of the oat phytochrome A phototransformation. A photothermal beam deflection study

Time-Resolved Energetics of Photoprocesses in Prokaryotic Phytochrome-Related Photoreceptors

Time-resolved photoacoustics (PA) is uniquely able to explore the energy landscape of photoactive proteins and concomitantly detects light-induced volumetric changes (ΔV) accompanying the formation and decay of transient species in a time window between ca. 20 ns and 5 μs. Here, we report PA measurements on diverse photochromic bilin-binding photoreceptors of prokaryotic origin: (1) the chromophore-binding GAF3 domain of the red (R)/green (G) switching cyanobacteriochrome 1393 (Slr1393g3) from Synechocystis; (2) the red/far red (R/FR) Synechocystis Cph1 phytochrome; (3) full-length and truncated constructs of Xanthomonas campestris bacteriophytochrome (XccBphP), absorbing up to the NIR spectral region. In almost all cases, photoisomerization results in a large fraction of energy dissipated as heat (up to 90%) on the sub-ns scale, reflecting the low photoisomerization quantum yield (<0.2). This "prompt" step is accompanied by a positive ΔV₁  = 5-12.5 mL mol^-1 . Formation of the first intermediate is the sole process accessible to PA, with the notable exception of Slr1393g3-G for which ΔV₁  = +4.5 mL mol^-1 is followed by a time-resolved, energy-conserving contraction ΔV₂  = -11.4 mL mol^-1 , τ₂  = 180 ns at 2.4°C. This peculiarity is possibly due to a larger solvent occupancy of the chromophore cavity for Slr1393g3-G.

Photoreceptors Take Charge: Emerging Principles for Light Sensing

The first stage in biological signaling is based on changes in the functional state of a receptor protein triggered by interaction of the receptor with its ligand(s). The light-triggered nature of photoreceptors allows studies on the mechanism of such changes in receptor proteins using a wide range of biophysical methods and with superb time resolution. Here, we critically evaluate current understanding of proton and electron transfer in photosensory proteins and their involvement both in primary photochemistry and subsequent processes that lead to the formation of the signaling state. An insight emerging from multiple families of photoreceptors is that ultrafast primary photochemistry is followed by slower proton transfer steps that contribute to triggering large protein conformational changes during signaling state formation. We discuss themes and principles for light sensing shared by the six photoreceptor families: rhodopsins, phytochromes, photoactive yellow proteins, light-oxygen-voltage proteins, blue-light sensors using flavin, and cryptochromes.

Phototransformation of the red light sensor cyanobacterial phytochrome 2 from Synechocystis species depends on its tongue motifs

Phytochromes are photoreceptors using a bilin tetrapyrrole as chromophore, which switch in canonical phytochromes between red (Pr) and far red (Pfr) light-absorbing states. Cph2 from Synechocystis sp., a noncanonical phytochrome, harbors besides a cyanobacteriochrome domain a second photosensory module, a Pr/Pfr-interconverting GAF-GAF bidomain (SynCph2(1-2)). As in the canonical phytochromes, a unique motif of the second GAF domain, the tongue region, seals the bilin-binding site in the GAF1 domain from solvent access. Time-resolved spectroscopy of the SynCph2(1-2) module shows four intermediates during Pr → Pfr phototransformation and three intermediates during Pfr → Pr back-conversion. A mutation in the tongue's conserved PRXSF motif, S385A, affects the formation of late intermediate R3 and of a Pfr-like state but not the back-conversion to Pr via a lumi-F-like state. In contrast, a mutation in the likewise conserved WXE motif, W389A, changes the photocycle at intermediate R2 and causes an alternative red light-adapted state. Here, back-conversion to Pr proceeds via intermediates differing from SynCph2(1-2). Replacement of this tryptophan that is ∼15 Å distant from the chromophore by another aromatic amino acid, W389F, restores native Pr → Pfr phototransformation. These results indicate large scale conformational changes within the tongue region of GAF2 during the final processes of phototransformation. We propose that in early intermediates only the chromophore and its nearest surroundings are altered, whereas late changes during R2 formation depend on the distant WXE motifs of the tongue region. Ser-385 within the PRXSF motif affects only late intermediate R3, when refolding of the tongue and docking to the GAF1 domain are almost completed.

Energetics and kinetics of photosynthetic water oxidation studied by photothermal beam deflection (PBD) experiments

Determination of thermodynamic parameters of water oxidation at the photosystem II (PSII) manganese complex is a major challenge. Photothermal beam deflection (PBD) spectroscopy determines enthalpy changes (ΔH) and apparent volume changes which are coupled with electron transfer in the S-state cycle (Krivanek R, Dau H, Haumann M (2008) Biophys J 94: 1890–1903). Recent PBD results on formation of the Q⁻(A)/Y(•+)(Z) radical pair suggest a value of ΔH similar to the free energy change, ΔG, of -540±40 meV previously determined by the analysis of recombination fluorescence, but presently the uncertainty range of ΔH values determined by PBD is still high (±250 meV). In the oxygen-evolving transition, S₃−−>S₀, the enthalpy change may be close to zero. A prominent non-thermal signal is associated with both Q⁻(A)/Y(•+)(Z) formation (<1 μs) and the S₃−−>S₀ transition (~1 ms). The observed (apparent) volume expansion (ΔV of about +40 ų per PSII unit) in the S₃−−>S₀ transition seems to revert, at least partially, the contractions on lower S-transitions and may also comprise contributions from O₂ and proton release. The observed volume changes show that the S₃−−>S₀ transition is accompanied by significant nuclear movements, which likely are of importance with respect to energetics and mechanism of photosynthetic water oxidation. Detailed PBD studies on all S-transitions will contribute to the progress in PSII research by providing insights not accessible by other spectroscopic methods.

Enthalpy changes during photosynthetic water oxidation tracked by time-resolved calorimetry using a photothermal beam deflection technique

The energetics of the individual reaction steps in the catalytic cycle of photosynthetic water oxidation at the Mn(4)Ca complex of photosystem II (PSII) are of prime interest. We studied the electron transfer reactions in oxygen-evolving PSII membrane particles from spinach by a photothermal beam deflection technique, allowing for time-resolved calorimetry in the micro- to millisecond domain. For an ideal quantum yield of 100%, the enthalpy change, DeltaH, coupled to the formation of the radical pair Y(Z)(.+)Q(A)(-) (where Y(Z) is Tyr-161 of the D1 subunit of PSII) is estimated as -820 +/- 250 meV. For a lower quantum yield of 70%, the enthalpy change is estimated to be -400 +/- 250 meV. The observed nonthermal signal possibly is due to a contraction of the PSII protein volume (apparent DeltaV of about -13 A(3)). For the first time, the enthalpy change of the O(2)-evolving transition of the S-state cycle was monitored directly. Surprisingly, the reaction is only slightly exergonic. A value of DeltaH(S(3)-->S(0)) of -210 meV is estimated, but also an enthalpy change of zero is within the error range. A prominent nonthermal photothermal beam deflection signal (apparent DeltaV of about +42 A(3)) may reflect O(2) and proton release from the manganese complex, but also reorganization of the protein matrix.

Time-resolved detection of conformational changes in oat phytochrome A: time-dependent diffusion

Conformational changes in oat phytochrome A (phy) in solution after photoexcitation of the red-absorbing form (Pr) were studied in time-domain by the pulsed laser-induced transient grating technique. It was found that the diffusion coefficient (D) of far-red-absorbing form (Pfr) of large phy (1.3 x 10(-11) m(2) s(-1)) is markedly reduced compared with that of Pr (5.8 x 10(-11) m(2) s(-1)). This large reduction indicates that the conformation of Pfr is significantly changed from that of Pr, so that the intermolecular interaction with water molecules increases. This change completes within 1 ms after the photoexcitation. On the other hand, D of Pr of intact phy (4.1 x 10(-11) m(2) s(-1)) first decreases upon photoexcitation to 0.89 x 10(-11) m(2) s(-1) within 1 ms and then gradually increases with a time constant of 100 ms to the value of Pfr, 1.7 x 10(-11) m(2) s(-1). This slower phase suggests that the conformation of the N-terminal region changes with 100 ms to decrease the intermolecular interaction with water after a global change in the large phy region. The increase of D was interpreted in terms of alpha-helix formation in the Pfr form from the random coil structure in the Pr form.

Time-resolved photothermal methods: accessing time-resolved thermodynamics of photoinduced processes in chemistry and biology

Photothermal methods are currently being employed in a variety of research areas, ranging from materials science to environmental monitoring. Despite the common term which they are collected under, the implementations of these techniques are as diverse as the fields of application. In this review, we concentrate on the recent applications of time-resolved methods in photochemistry and photobiology.