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Dash S, Syed YA, Khan MR. Understanding the Role of the Gut Microbiome in Brain Development and Its Association With Neurodevelopmental Psychiatric Disorders. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:880544. [PMID: 35493075 PMCID: PMC9048050 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.880544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome has a tremendous influence on human physiology, including the nervous system. During fetal development, the initial colonization of the microbiome coincides with the development of the nervous system in a timely, coordinated manner. Emerging studies suggest an active involvement of the microbiome and its metabolic by-products in regulating early brain development. However, any disruption during this early developmental process can negatively impact brain functionality, leading to a range of neurodevelopment and neuropsychiatric disorders (NPD). In this review, we summarize recent evidence as to how the gut microbiome can influence the process of early human brain development and its association with major neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders such as autism spectrum disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia. Further, we discuss how gut microbiome alterations can also play a role in inducing drug resistance in the affected individuals. We propose a model that establishes a direct link of microbiome dysbiosis with the exacerbated inflammatory state, leading to functional brain deficits associated with NPD. Based on the existing research, we discuss a framework whereby early diet intervention can boost mental wellness in the affected subjects and call for further research for a better understanding of mechanisms that govern the gut-brain axis may lead to novel approaches to the study of the pathophysiology and treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somarani Dash
- Life Sciences Division, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology (IASST), Guwahati, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Yasir Ahmed Syed
- School of Biosciences and Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Mojibur R. Khan
- Life Sciences Division, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology (IASST), Guwahati, India
- *Correspondence: Mojibur R. Khan,
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2
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Abstract
Neuropsychiatric sequalae to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection are beginning to emerge, like previous Spanish influenza and severe acute respiratory syndrome episodes. Streptococcal infection in paediatric patients causing obsessive compulsive disorder (PANDAS) is another recent example of an infection-based psychiatric disorder. Inflammation associated with neuropsychiatric disorders has been previously reported but there is no standard clinical management approach established. Part of the reason is that it is unclear what factors determine the specific neuronal vulnerability and the efficacy of anti-inflammatory treatment in neuroinflammation. The emerging COVID-19 data suggested that in the acute stage, widespread neuronal damage appears to be the result of abnormal and overactive immune responses and cytokine storm is associated with poor prognosis. It is still too early to know if there are long-term-specific neuronal or brain regional damages associated with COVID-19, resulting in distinct neuropsychiatric disorders. In several major psychiatric disorders where neuroinflammation is present, patients with abnormal inflammatory markers may also experience less than favourable response or treatment resistance when standard treatment is used alone. Evidence regarding the benefits of co-administered anti-inflammatory agents such as COX-2 inhibitor is encouraging in selected patients though may not benefit others. Disease-modifying therapies are increasingly being applied to neuropsychiatric diseases characterised by abnormal or hyperreactive immune responses. Adjunct anti-inflammatory treatment may benefit selected patients and is definitely an important component of clinical management in the presence of neuroinflammation.
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Bhuiyan P, Chen Y, Karim M, Dong H, Qian Y. Bidirectional communication between mast cells and the gut-brain axis in neurodegenerative diseases: Avenues for therapeutic intervention. Brain Res Bull 2021; 172:61-78. [PMID: 33892083 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although the global incidence of neurodegenerative diseases has been steadily increasing, especially in adults, there are no effective therapeutic interventions. Neurodegeneration is a heterogeneous group of disorders that is characterized by the activation of immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) (e.g., mast cells and microglia) and subsequent neuroinflammation. Mast cells are found in the brain and the gastrointestinal tract and play a role in "tuning" neuroimmune responses. The complex bidirectional communication between mast cells and gut microbiota coordinates various dynamic neuro-cellular responses, which propagates neuronal impulses from the gastrointestinal tract into the CNS. Numerous inflammatory mediators from degranulated mast cells alter intestinal gut permeability and disrupt blood-brain barrier, which results in the promotion of neuroinflammatory processes leading to neurological disorders, thereby offsetting the balance in immune-surveillance. Emerging evidence supports the hypothesis that gut-microbiota exert a pivotal role in inflammatory signaling through the activation of immune and inflammatory cells. Communication between inflammatory cytokines and neurocircuits via the gut-brain axis (GBA) affects behavioral responses, activates mast cells and microglia that causes neuroinflammation, which is associated with neurological diseases. In this comprehensive review, we focus on what is currently known about mast cells and the gut-brain axis relationship, and how this relationship is connected to neurodegenerative diseases. We hope that further elucidating the bidirectional communication between mast cells and the GBA will not only stimulate future research on neurodegenerative diseases but will also identify new opportunities for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piplu Bhuiyan
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, PR China
| | - Yinan Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, PR China
| | - Mazharul Karim
- College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Science, 309 East 2nd Street, Pomona, CA, 91766, USA
| | - Hongquan Dong
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, PR China.
| | - Yanning Qian
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, PR China.
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Schizophrenia-associated SLC39A8 polymorphism is a loss-of-function allele altering glutamate receptor and innate immune signaling. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:136. [PMID: 33608496 PMCID: PMC7895948 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01262-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex and heterogenous disease that presents with abnormalities in glutamate signaling and altered immune and inflammatory signals. Genome-wide association studies have indicated specific genes and pathways that may contribute to schizophrenia. We assessed the impact of the functional missense variant SLC39A8 (ZIP8)-A391T (ZIP8A391T) on zinc transport, glutamate signaling, and the neuroinflammatory response. The ZIP8A391T mutation resulted in reduced zinc transport into the cell, suggesting a loss in the tight control of zinc in the synaptic cleft. Electrophysiological recordings from perturbed neurons revealed a significant reduction in NMDA- and AMPA-mediated spontaneous EPSCs (sEPSCs) and a reduction in GluN2A and GluA1/2/3 receptor surface expression. All phenotypes were rescued by re-expression of wild-type ZIP8 (ZIP8WT) or application of the membrane-impermeable zinc chelator ZX1. ZIP8 reduction also resulted in decreased BBB integrity, increased IL-6/IL-1β protein expression, and increased NFκB following TNFα stimulation, indicating that ZIP8 loss-of-function may exacerbate immune and inflammatory signals. Together, our findings demonstrate that the A391T missense mutation results in alterations in glutamate and immune function and provide novel therapeutic targets relevant to schizophrenia.
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de Souza DV, Pappis L, Bandeira TT, Sangoi GG, Fontana T, Rissi VB, Sagrillo MR, Duarte MM, Duarte T, Bodenstein DF, Andreazza AC, Cruz IBMD, Ribeiro EE, Antoniazzi A, Ourique AF, Machado AK. Açaí ( Euterpe oleracea Mart.) presents anti-neuroinflammatory capacity in LPS-activated microglia cells. Nutr Neurosci 2020; 25:1188-1199. [PMID: 33170113 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2020.1842044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Neuropsychiatric diseases are responsible for one of the highest burden of morbidity and mortality worldwide. These illnesses include schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression. Individuals affected by these diseases may present mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Additionally, patients also have increased peripheral and neural chronic inflammation. The Brazilian fruit, açaí, has been demonstrated to be a neuroprotective agent through its recovery of mitochondrial complex I activity. This extract has previously shown anti-inflammatory effects in inflammatory cells. However, there is a lack of understanding of potential anti-neuroinflammatory mechanisms, such as cell cycle involvement. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to evaluate the anti-neuroinflammatory potential of an açaí extract in lipopolysaccharide-activated BV-2 microglia cells. METHODS Açaí extract was produced and characterized through high performance liquid chromatography. Following açaí extraction and characterization, BV-2 microglia cells were activated with LPS and a dose-response curve was generated to select the most effective açaí dose to reduce cellular proliferation. This dose was then used to assess reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, double-strand DNA release, cell cycle modulation, and cytokine and caspase protein expression. RESULTS Characterization of the açaí extract revealed 10 bioactive molecules. The extract reduced cellular proliferation, ROS production, and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines and caspase 1 protein expression under 1 μg/mL in LPS-activated BV-2 microglia cells but had no effect on double strand DNA release. Additionally, açaí treatment caused cell cycle arrest, specifically within synthesis and G2/Mitosis phases. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the freeze-dried hydroalcoholic açaí extract presents high anti-neuroinflammatory potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diulie Valente de Souza
- Graduate Program in Nanoscience, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cell Culture and Genetics, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Lauren Pappis
- Graduate Program of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | | | | | - Tuyla Fontana
- Laboratory of Cell Culture and Genetics, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Vitor Braga Rissi
- Department of Agriculture, Biodiversity and Forests, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Curitibanos, SC, Brazil
| | - Michele Rorato Sagrillo
- Graduate Program in Nanoscience, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cell Culture and Genetics, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Marta Maria Duarte
- Graduate Program in Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Thiago Duarte
- Graduate Program in Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Cristina Andreazza
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Alfredo Antoniazzi
- Graduate Program in Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Alencar Kolinski Machado
- Graduate Program in Nanoscience, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cell Culture and Genetics, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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6
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Dai N, Jie H, Duan Y, Xiong P, Xu X, Chen P, Kang M, Li M, Li T, Huang Z, Chen H. Different serum protein factor levels in first-episode drug-naive patients with schizophrenia characterized by positive and negative symptoms. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2020; 74:472-479. [PMID: 32478952 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.13078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
AIM The clinical features of schizophrenia can be mainly divided into two symptom domains: positive and negative. Patients in each symptom domain respond differently to treatments, and their prognoses vary accordingly. Serum protein factors, such as nerve growth factor (NGF), neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and the calcium-binding protein, S100β, have been reported to be involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. However, their roles in the positive and negative symptom domains have not been determined. In this study, we investigated whether the serum levels of these five protein factors differed among first-episode drug-naive schizophrenia patients in each symptom domain and in healthy controls. METHODS Double-antibody sandwich ELISA were used to quantify the amounts of the five protein factors in serum. RESULTS Compared with the levels in the controls (n = 60), increased serum levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and S100β and decreased serum levels of NGF and NT-3 were observed in first-episode drug-naive schizophrenia patients. Additionally, the serum levels of IL-6 and IL-1β were significantly higher in schizophrenia patients characterized by negative symptoms (negative group, n = 37) than in those characterized by positive symptoms (positive group, n = 46). Based on multivariate regression analyses, serum levels of IL-1β were positively associated with the Negative Symptom subscore of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale in the negative group and in all patients with schizophrenia. CONCLUSION The two subtypes of schizophrenia may have different pathological mechanisms. Patients characterized by negative symptoms probably have more serious disturbances in neuroimmunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Dai
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Huijin Jie
- The Third People's Hospital of Huzhou, Huzhou, China
| | - Yong Duan
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Peng Xiong
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Xiufeng Xu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Peng Chen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Minmin Kang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Ming Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Ting Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Zhengyuan Huang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Hongxu Chen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
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7
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Hong J, Bang M. Anti-inflammatory Strategies for Schizophrenia: A Review of Evidence for Therapeutic Applications and Drug Repurposing. CLINICAL PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 18:10-24. [PMID: 31958901 PMCID: PMC7006977 DOI: 10.9758/cpn.2020.18.1.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a debilitating psychiatric disorder with a substantial socioeconomic and humanistic burden. Currently available treatment strategies mostly rely on antipsychotic drugs, which block dopaminergic effects in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain. Although antipsychotic drugs help relieve psychotic symptoms, a definitive cure for schizophrenia has yet to be achieved. Recent advances in neuroinflammation research suggest that proinflammatory processes in the brain could cause alterations in neurobehavioral development and increase vulnerability to schizophrenia. With a growing need for novel strategies in the treatment of schizophrenia, it would be meaningful to review the current evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of anti-inflammatory strategies. This review details the key findings of clinical trials that investigate the efficacy of anti-inflammatory agents as adjuvants to antipsychotic treatment. We further discuss the possibilities of repurposing anti-inflammatory agents and developing novel strategies for the treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghee Hong
- CHA University School of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Minji Bang
- Department of Psychiatry, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University School of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea
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8
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Baj J, Sitarz E, Forma A, Wróblewska K, Karakuła-Juchnowicz H. Alterations in the Nervous System and Gut Microbiota after β-Hemolytic Streptococcus Group A Infection-Characteristics and Diagnostic Criteria of PANDAS Recognition. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E1476. [PMID: 32098238 PMCID: PMC7073132 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21041476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to review and summarize conclusions from the available literature regarding Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS). The authors have independently reviewed articles from 1977 onwards, primarily focusing on the etiopathology, symptoms, differentiation between similar psychiatric conditions, immunological reactions, alterations in the nervous system and gut microbiota, genetics, and the available treatment for PANDAS. Recent research indicates that PANDAS patients show noticeable alterations within the structures of the central nervous system, including caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, and striatum, as well as bilateral and lentiform nuclei. Likewise, the presence of autoantibodies that interact with basal ganglia was observed in PANDAS patients. Several studies also suggest a relationship between the presence of obsessive-compulsive disorders like PANDAS and alterations to the gut microbiota. Further, genetic predispositions-including variations in the MBL gene and TNF-α-seem to be relevant regarding PANDAS syndrome. Even though the literature is still scarce, the authors have attempted to provide a thorough insight into the PANDAS syndrome, bearing in mind the diagnostic difficulties of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Baj
- Chair and Department of Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Sitarz
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (E.S.); (A.F.)
| | - Alicja Forma
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (E.S.); (A.F.)
| | - Katarzyna Wróblewska
- North London Forensic Service, Chase Farm Hospital, 127 The Ridgeway, Enfield, Middlesex EN2 8JL, UK;
| | - Hanna Karakuła-Juchnowicz
- Chair and 1st Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Early Intervention, Medical University of Lublin, Gluska Street 1, 20-439 Lublin, Poland;
- Department of Clinical Neuropsychiatry, Medical University of Lublin, Gluska Street 1, 20-439 Lublin, Poland
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9
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Liu Q, Du J, Fan J, Li W, Guo W, Feng H, Lin J. Generation and Characterization of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells from Mononuclear Cells in Schizophrenic Patients. CELL JOURNAL 2019; 21:161-168. [PMID: 30825289 PMCID: PMC6397609 DOI: 10.22074/cellj.2019.5871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Objective Schizophrenia (SZ) is a mental disorder in which psychotic symptoms are the main problem. The
pathogenesis of SZ is not fully understood, partly because of limitations in current disease models and technology. The
development of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology has opened up the possibility of elucidating disease
mechanisms in neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we aimed to obtain iPSCs from peripheral blood mononuclear cells
(PBMCs) of normal and schizophrenic individuals and analyze the inflammatory response in these iPSCs.
Materials and Methods In this experimental study, we isolated PBMCs from whole blood of healthy individuals and
SZ patients and reprogrammed them into iPSCs by transfection of recombinant lentiviruses that contained Yamanaka
factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc). We calculated the numbers of iPSC clones and stained them with alkaline
phosphatase (ALP), Nanog, SSEA4, Nestin, Vimentin, and AFP to confirm their efficiency and pluripotency. The iPSCs
were analyzed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) for the expressions of inflammatory
factors.
Results iPSCs from schizophrenic patients (SZ-iPSCs) exhibited typical morphology and highly expressed pluripotent
markers. These iPSCs retained their normal karyotype and differentiated in vitro to form embryoid bodies (EBs) that
expressed markers of all 3 germ layers. However, iPSCs from the SZ-iPSCs group had a weak capacity to differentiate
into ectoderm compared to the normal iPSCs (Con-iPSC). An elevated, stronger inflammatory response existed in
iPSCs from schizophrenic individuals.
Conclusion We successfully obtained iPSCs from PBMCs of schizophrenic patients without genetic operation and analyzed
the expressions of pluripotent markers and inflammatory factors between the Con-iPSC and SZ-iPSC groups. Taken together,
our results may assist to explain the pathogenesis of SZ and develop new strategies for clinical diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Liu
- Stem Cell and Biotherapy Engineering Research Center of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.,Henan Key Lab of Biological Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Jiang Du
- Stem Cell and Biotherapy Engineering Research Center of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.,College of Biomedical Engineering, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Jinyu Fan
- Stem Cell and Biotherapy Engineering Research Center of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Wenqiang Li
- Stem Cell and Biotherapy Engineering Research Center of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.,Henan Key Lab of Biological Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Weiyun Guo
- College of Life Science and Technology, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Huigen Feng
- Stem Cell and Biotherapy Engineering Research Center of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.Electronic Address:
| | - Juntang Lin
- Stem Cell and Biotherapy Engineering Research Center of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.,College of Biomedical Engineering, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China.Electronic Address:
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Lin P, Ding B, Wu Y, Dong K, Li Q. Mitogen-stimulated cell proliferation and cytokine production in major depressive disorder patients. BMC Psychiatry 2018; 18:330. [PMID: 30314474 PMCID: PMC6186084 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-018-1906-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major depressive disorder (MDD) is related to human's immune status, and immunological indicators such as mitogen stimulated cell proliferation and cytokines may become candidate biomarkers for disease diagnosis. METHODS One hundred diagnosed major depressive disorder subjects and 100 health controls were enrolled in this study. Phytohaemagglutinin and lipopolysaccharide stimulated cell proliferations and cytokine concentrations were detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from both groups. The corresponding stimulated responses were conducted and confirmed in chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) mice. RESULTS Compared to the people in control group, there were lower cell proliferations and lower TNF-α produced in lipopolysaccharide stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells in depression patients, lower IL-2 and IL-10 produced in phytohaemagglutinin stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells in depression patients, higher IL-6, IL-10 and lower IL-2 secretions were detected in peripheral plasma in depression patients. In CUMS mice we found lower splenocyte proliferations, lower IL-1α productions and higher IL-6 secretions in lipopolysaccharide stimulated splenocytes. It seems lipopolysaccharide stimulated cell proliferation activities were inhibited in depressive states. CONCLUSIONS Lower lipopolysaccharide stimulated cell proliferation and phytohaemagglutinin stimulated or plasma cytokine IL-2 decreases should be potential monitoring indices in the depressive state assessment for major depressive disorder patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Lin
- 0000 0004 0368 8293grid.16821.3cDepartment of Medical Laboratory, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030 China ,0000 0004 0368 8293grid.16821.3cDepartment of Laboratory Medicine, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025 China
| | - Bingyu Ding
- 0000 0004 0368 8293grid.16821.3cDepartment of Laboratory Medicine, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025 China
| | - Yunqiang Wu
- 0000 0004 0368 8293grid.16821.3cDepartment of Laboratory Medicine, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025 China
| | - Ke Dong
- 0000 0004 0368 8293grid.16821.3cDepartment of Immunology and Microbiology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025 China
| | - Qingtian Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China.
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11
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Abstract
This paper discusses the current evidence from animal and human studies for a central role of inflammation in schizophrenia. In animal models, pre- or perinatal elicitation of the immune response may increase immune reactivity throughout life, and similar findings have been described in humans. Levels of pro-inflammatory markers, such as cytokines, have been found to be increased in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with schizophrenia. Numerous epidemiological and clinical studies have provided evidence that various infectious agents are risk factors for schizophrenia and other psychoses. For example, a large-scale epidemiological study performed in Denmark clearly showed that severe infections and autoimmune disorders are such risk factors. The vulnerability-stress-inflammation model may help to explain the role of inflammation in schizophrenia because stress can increase pro-inflammatory cytokines and may even contribute to a chronic pro-inflammatory state. Schizophrenia is characterized by risk genes that promote inflammation and by environmental stress factors and alterations of the immune system. Typical alterations of dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmission described in schizophrenia have also been found in low-level neuroinflammation and consequently may be key factors in the generation of schizophrenia symptoms. Further support for the relevance of a low-level neuroinflammatory process in schizophrenia is provided by the loss of central nervous system volume and microglial activation demonstrated in neuroimaging studies. Last but not least, the benefit of anti-inflammatory medications found in some studies and the intrinsic anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of antipsychotics provide further support for the role of inflammation in this debilitating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Ludwig Maximilian University and Marion von Tessin Memory Center, Munich, Germany
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12
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Hestad KA, Engedal K, Whist JE, Farup PG. The Relationships among Tryptophan, Kynurenine, Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase, Depression, and Neuropsychological Performance. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1561. [PMID: 29046648 PMCID: PMC5632654 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been suggested that the metabolic enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a biological mediator of inflammation related to the psychopathology of depression, with a Kynurenine (KYN) increase in the Tryptophan (TRP) metabolic pathway, resulting in reduced Serotonin. In this study, we examined KYN, TRP, and the ratio of KYN to TRP concentrations × 103 (KT Ratio) in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in (a) a group of depressed patients and (b) a control group of patients referred to a neurologic outpatient clinic for whom no specific diagnosis could be established. The KT Ratio is considered an index that represents IDO. The participants were examined with the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II), the Montgomery Aasberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), and a neuropsychological test battery. We found no significant differences between the two study groups with respect to TRP, KYN, or KT Ratio in serum or CSF. Differences in neuropsychological performance between the two patient groups could be seen in the following tests: Animal Fluency, Digit Symbol, the DKEFS Color-Interference Test (Naming Part), Trail Making Test A and B, and the Grooved Pegboard Non-dominant Hand. KYN in serum correlated highly with KYN in CSF. KYN in serum correlated significantly with both age and gender. When analyzing males and females separately, we found that women had a lower level of TRP in both serum (Mann-Whitney U-test: TRP in Serum; p = 0.001) and CSF (Mann-Whitney U-test: TRP in CSF; p = 0.003). Women had a lower level of KYN in serum (p = 0.029) than men did. Age was positively associated with KYN. KYN in CSF correlated only with age, however; there were no gender differences. No significant relationship was seen between BDI-II and MADRS on the one hand, and KYN and TRP on the other. KYN in CSF as the KT Ratio in both serum and CSF was associated with neuropsychological performance. Thus, we suggest that KYN and KT Ratio are related more strongly to neuropsychological performance than to affective symptoms in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Knut A Hestad
- Department of Research, Innlandet Hospital Trust, Brumunddal, Norway.,Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Public Health, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
| | - Knut Engedal
- Norwegian Center for Aging and Health, Vestfold Health Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
| | - Jon E Whist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Innlandet Hospital Trust, Brumunddal, Norway
| | - Per G Farup
- Department of Research, Innlandet Hospital Trust, Brumunddal, Norway.,Unit for Applied Clinical Research, Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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13
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Huang TL, Lo LH, Shiea J, Su H. Rapid and simple analysis of disease-associated biomarkers of Taiwanese patients with schizophrenia using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry. Clin Chim Acta 2017; 473:75-81. [PMID: 28807542 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is an extremely sensitive analytical tool for characterizing biological compounds in bio samples. In this study, we applied MALDI-TOF MS to assess potential protein biomarkers in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of patients with schizophrenia in the acute phase, recovery phase and healthy controls in Taiwan. METHODS We recruited 40 participants, including 20 pairs of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia in the acute phase, after four-week treatment with drug in the recovery phase, and 20 healthy controls. The schizophrenic patients were diagnosed using Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID), and severity was assessed by a positive and negative symptom scale at baseline and at endpoint following four-week treatment with drug. The patients' PBMCs biomarkers were rapidly measured using a technique that combines MALDI-TOF MS and principle component analysis. A receiver operating characteristic curve was created for the evaluated biomarker. RESULTS Significant differences in α-defensins 1-3 were found between the patients in acute phase with schizophrenia and the healthy controls, but not between the schizophrenic patients in recovery phase and healthy controls or between the schizophrenic patients in acute phase and in recovery phase. CONCLUSIONS α-Defensins can be biomarkers of Taiwanese patients with schizophrenia, thus supporting the hypothesis that the inflammatory response and immunity system is correlated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Moreover, the result also implies that α-defensins may be related in schizophrenia-associated disease not in efficacy of drug-treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiao-Lai Huang
- Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Genomic and Proteomic Core Laboratory, Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Li-Hua Lo
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Jentaie Shiea
- Department of Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hung Su
- Department of Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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14
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Mottahedin A, Ardalan M, Chumak T, Riebe I, Ek J, Mallard C. Effect of Neuroinflammation on Synaptic Organization and Function in the Developing Brain: Implications for Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:190. [PMID: 28744200 PMCID: PMC5504097 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain is a plastic organ where both the intrinsic CNS milieu and extrinsic cues play important roles in shaping and wiring neural connections. The perinatal period constitutes a critical time in central nervous system development with extensive refinement of neural connections, which are highly sensitive to fetal and neonatal compromise, such as inflammatory challenges. Emerging evidence suggests that inflammatory cells in the brain such as microglia and astrocytes are pivotal in regulating synaptic structure and function. In this article, we will review the role of glia cells in synaptic physiology and pathophysiology, including microglia-mediated elimination of synapses. We propose that activation of the immune system dynamically affects synaptic organization and function in the developing brain. We will discuss the role of neuroinflammation in altered synaptic plasticity following perinatal inflammatory challenges and potential implications for neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Mottahedin
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Maryam Ardalan
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tetyana Chumak
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ilse Riebe
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Joakim Ek
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carina Mallard
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
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15
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Braun S, Bridler R, Müller N, Schwarz MJ, Seifritz E, Weisbrod M, Zgraggen A, Stassen HH. Inflammatory processes and schizophrenia: two independent lines of evidence from a study of twins discordant and concordant for schizophrenic disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2017; 267:377-389. [PMID: 28378228 PMCID: PMC5509778 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-017-0792-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The concept of twin concordance involves quantifying the resemblance between co-twins in an "objective" and reproducible way. Yet, quantifying resemblance in the case of complex psychiatric traits like schizophrenic disorders leads to methodological problems, as the yes-no dichotomy of diagnostic schemata does not allow one to assess between-subject differences in psychopathology patterns sufficiently accurately. Therefore, we relied on a multidimensional, quantitative concordance measure that provided a high resolution and differentiation when assessing the resemblance of psychopathology patterns. This concordance measure was central to our investigations into the potential link between schizophrenic disorders and aberrancies of the inflammatory response system. Specifically, we aimed to determine the extent to which (1) the observed variation of between-subject psychopathology concordance among 100 schizophrenic patients and (2) the observed variation of within-pair psychopathology concordance among 71 twin pairs can be explained by immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels. To accomplish this goal, we had to "gauge" in a first step the concordance measure's performance by (1) comparing the psychopathology patterns of 269 index cases suffering from functional psychoses with the respective patterns of the 350 "affecteds" among their first-degree relatives; (2) systematically comparing the psychopathology patterns of 100 unrelated patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenic disorders with each other; and (3) detailing the within-pair concordance of elementary traits among 2734 healthy twin pairs. As to the role of active immune processes in the context of schizophrenic disorders, we found that there exists a 20-30% subgroup of patients for whom aberrancies of the inflammatory response system, as quantified through IgM levels, appeared to be linked to the pathogenesis of schizophrenic disorders (r = 0.7515/0.8184, p < 0.0001). The variation of within-pair psychopathology concordance among twins with schizophrenic disorders was found to be "explainable" in part by chronically elevated IgM levels (24.5% of observed phenotypic variance; p = 0.0434), thus suggesting that monozygotic twins concordant for schizophrenic disorders may possess a less "robust" variant of the inflammatory response system which can more easily be triggered by exogenous factors than the more "robust" variants of discordant pairs. Though the underlying biological mechanisms remain to be detected, our data have cleared the way for an early identification of patients with schizophrenic disorders for whom the inflammatory response system may be a target for therapeutic intervention. Moreover, our results will likely lead to new treatment strategies that involve elements of personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Braun
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Psychiatric University Hospital (KPPP), Institute for Response-Genetics, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - René Bridler
- Sanatorium Kilchberg, 8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Müller
- 0000 0004 0477 2585grid.411095.8Psychiatric University Hospital (LMU), 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Markus J. Schwarz
- 0000 0004 1936 973Xgrid.5252.0Institute for Laboratory Medicine, University of Munich (LMU), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Erich Seifritz
- 0000 0004 0478 9977grid.412004.3Psychiatric University Hospital (KPPP), 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Weisbrod
- 0000 0001 2162 1728grid.411778.cPsychiatric University Hospital, 69115 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alexandra Zgraggen
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Psychiatric University Hospital (KPPP), Institute for Response-Genetics, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hans H. Stassen
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Psychiatric University Hospital (KPPP), Institute for Response-Genetics, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
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16
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Muneer A. The Neurobiology of Bipolar Disorder: An Integrated Approach. Chonnam Med J 2016; 52:18-37. [PMID: 26865997 PMCID: PMC4742607 DOI: 10.4068/cmj.2016.52.1.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Bipolar disorder is a heterogeneous condition with myriad clinical manifestations and many comorbidities leading to severe disabilities in the biopsychosocial realm. The objective of this review article was to underline recent advances in knowledge regarding the neurobiology of bipolar disorder. A further aim was to draw attention to new therapeutic targets in the treatment of bipolar disorder. To accomplish these goals, an electronic search was undertaken of the PubMed database in August 2015 of literature published during the last 10 years on the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. A wide-ranging evaluation of the existing work was done with search terms such as "mood disorders and biology," "bipolar disorder and HPA axis," "bipolar disorder and cytokines," "mood disorders and circadian rhythm," "bipolar disorder and oxidative stress," etc. This endeavor showed that bipolar disorder is a diverse condition sharing neurobiological mechanisms with major depressive disorder and psychotic spectrum disorders. There is convincing evidence of crosstalk between different biological systems that act in a deleterious manner causing expression of the disease in genetically predisposed individuals. Inflammatory mediators act in concert with oxidative stress to dysregulate hormonal, metabolic, and circadian homeostasis in precipitating and perpetuating the illness. Stress, whether biologically or psychologically mediated, is responsible for the initiation and progression of the diathesis. Bipolar spectrum disorders have a strong genetic component; severe life stresses acting through various paths cause the illness phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ather Muneer
- Department of Psychiatry, Islamic International Medical College, Riphah International University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
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17
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Steinberg H, Kirkby KC, Himmerich H. The Historical Development of Immunoendocrine Concepts of Psychiatric Disorders and Their Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:28841-69. [PMID: 26690116 PMCID: PMC4691083 DOI: 10.3390/ijms161226136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Relationships between the central nervous, immune and endocrine systems are a focus of psychiatric research, particularly in depression and schizophrenia. The field has long antecedents. Observed phenomena attributable to these relationships date back to the Neolithic era. Immunoendocrine theories in the broadest sense are recorded in antiquity. In the 19th century, Kraepelin and Wagner-Jauregg reported pioneering clinical observations in psychiatric patients. Von Basedow, Addison and Cushing described psychiatric symptoms in patients suffering from endocrine diseases. The 20th century opened with the identification of hormones, the first, adrenaline, chemically isolated independently by Aldrich und Takamine in 1901. Berson and Yalow developed the radioimmunoassay (RIA) technique in 1959 making it possible to measure levels of hormones and cytokines. These developments have enabled great strides in psychoimmunoendocrinology. Contemporary research is investigating diagnostic and therapeutic applications of these concepts, for example by identifying biomarkers within the endocrine and immune systems and by synthesizing and testing drugs that modulate these systems and show antidepressant or antipsychotic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Steinberg
- Archives for the History of Psychiatry in Leipzig, Department of Psychiatry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig 04103, Germany.
| | - Kenneth C Kirkby
- Department of Mental Health, University of Tasmania, Hobart TAS 7005, Australia.
| | - Hubertus Himmerich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig 04103, Germany.
- Department of Psychological Medicine, King's College London, London SE5 8AF, UK.
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18
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Müller N, Weidinger E, Leitner B, Schwarz MJ. The role of inflammation in schizophrenia. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:372. [PMID: 26539073 PMCID: PMC4612505 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
High levels of pro-inflammatory substances such as cytokines have been described in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid of schizophrenia patients. Animal models of schizophrenia show that under certain conditions an immune disturbance during early life, such as an infection-triggered immune activation, might trigger lifelong increased immune reactivity. A large epidemiological study clearly demonstrated that severe infections and autoimmune disorders are risk factors for schizophrenia. Genetic studies have shown a strong signal for schizophrenia on chromosome 6p22.1, in a region related to the human leucocyte antigen (HLA) system and other immune functions. Another line of evidence demonstrates that chronic (dis)stress is associated with immune activation. The vulnerability-stress-inflammation model of schizophrenia includes the contribution of stress on the basis of increased genetic vulnerability for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, because stress may increase pro-inflammatory cytokines and even contribute to a lasting pro-inflammatory state. Immune alterations influence the dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmission. The activated immune system in turn activates the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) of the tryptophan/kynurenine metabolism which influences the serotonergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission via neuroactive metabolites such as kynurenic acid. The described loss of central nervous system volume and the activation of microglia, both of which have been clearly demonstrated in neuroimaging studies of schizophrenia patients, match the assumption of a (low level) inflammatory neurotoxic process. Further support for the inflammatory hypothesis comes from the therapeutic benefit of anti-inflammatory medication. Metaanalyses have shown an advantageous effect of cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors in early stages of schizophrenia. Moreover, intrinsic anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects of antipsychotic drugs are known since a long time. Anti-inflammatory effects of antipsychotics, therapeutic effects of anti-inflammtory compounds, genetic, biochemical, and immunological findings point to a major role of inflammation in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Germany
| | - Elif Weidinger
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Germany
| | - Bianka Leitner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Germany
| | - Markus J Schwarz
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Germany
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19
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Bandeira LG, Bortolot BS, Cecatto MJ, Monte-Alto-Costa A, Romana-Souza B. Exogenous Tryptophan Promotes Cutaneous Wound Healing of Chronically Stressed Mice through Inhibition of TNF-α and IDO Activation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128439. [PMID: 26057238 PMCID: PMC4461259 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress prolongs the inflammatory response compromising the dermal reconstruction and wound closure. Acute stress-induced inflammation increases indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase-stimulated tryptophan catabolism. To investigate the role of indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase expression and tryptophan administration in adverse effects of stress on cutaneous wound healing, mice were submitted to chronic restraint stress and treated with tryptophan daily until euthanasia. Excisional lesions were created on each mouse and 5 or 7 days later, the lesions were analyzed. In addition, murine skin fibroblasts were exposed to elevated epinephrine levels plus tryptophan, and fibroblast activity was evaluated. Tryptophan administration reversed the reduction of the plasma tryptophan levels and the increase in the plasma normetanephrine levels induced by stress 5 and 7 days after wounding. Five days after wounding, stress-induced increase in the protein levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase, and this was inhibited by tryptophan. Stress-induced increase in the lipid peroxidation and the amount of the neutrophils, macrophages and T cells number was reversed by tryptophan 5 days after wounding. Tryptophan administration inhibited the reduction of myofibroblast density, collagen deposition, re-epithelialization and wound contraction induced by stress 5 days after wounding. In dermal fibroblast culture, the tryptophan administration increased the cell migration and AKT phosphorylation in cells treated with high epinephrine levels. In conclusion, tryptophan-induced reduction of inflammatory response and indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase expression may have accelerated cutaneous wound healing of chronically stressed mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Graziella Bandeira
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair, Department of Histology and Embryology, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Beatriz Salari Bortolot
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair, Department of Histology and Embryology, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Matheus Jorand Cecatto
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair, Department of Histology and Embryology, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andréa Monte-Alto-Costa
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair, Department of Histology and Embryology, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Bruna Romana-Souza
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair, Department of Histology and Embryology, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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20
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Yildirim O, Canan F, Tosun M, Kayka N, Tuman TC, Alhan C, Alcelik A. Plasma omentin levels in drug-free patients with schizophrenia. Neuropsychobiology 2015; 69:159-64. [PMID: 24852382 DOI: 10.1159/000360736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
AIMS We aimed to investigate plasma omentin concentrations in non-obese, drug-free patients with schizophrenia in comparison with healthy volunteers. METHOD Thirty-two patients with schizophrenia and 33 control subjects were recruited. Plasma omentin levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS Plasma levels of omentin (ng/ml) were found to be markedly lower in patients with schizophrenia (median = 7.7, 25th percentile = 6.3, 75th percentile = 604.9) than in controls (median = 486, 25th percentile = 326, 75th percentile = 794.2, p < 0.01). No significant difference was found between drug-free (n = 23) and drug-naive (n = 9) patients with respect to plasma omentin levels. Omentin concentrations correlated negatively with severity of illness, suggesting that patients with more severe pathology had lower fasting levels of omentin (n = 32; r = -0.387; p = 0.029). CONCLUSION The present results suggest that plasma omentin levels are decreased in physically healthy, non-obese, antipsychotic-free patients with schizophrenia when compared with physically and mentally healthy individuals. To our knowledge, this is the first study that demonstrated the association between omentin and schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osman Yildirim
- Department of Psychiatry, Abant Izzet Baysal University, School of Medicine, Bolu, Turkey
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21
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Takanari J, Hirayama Y, Homma K, Miura T, Nishioka H, Maeda T. Effects of active hexose correlated compound on the seasonal variations of immune competence in healthy subjects. J Evid Based Complementary Altern Med 2014; 20:28-34. [PMID: 25376719 DOI: 10.1177/2156587214555573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of active hexose correlated compound intake on the immune competence in healthy volunteers. Thirty-four subjects were randomized to receive placebo or active hexose correlated compound at 1.0 g/d for 4 weeks in early winter. Natural killer cell activity was significantly increased in both groups during the study period, the natural killer cell number, however, was not altered in the active hexose correlated compound group while placebo group showed remarkable decline. In addition, the score of immunological vigor, an index of total immune competence, was maintained in the active hexose correlated compound group although that of placebo group lowered during the test period. These results suggested that the continuous active hexose correlated compound intake maintained the immune competence against the seasonal change.
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22
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O'Connell KE, Thakore J, Dev KK. Pro-inflammatory cytokine levels are raised in female schizophrenia patients treated with clozapine. Schizophr Res 2014; 156:1-8. [PMID: 24742875 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We have previously shown that the neurotrophic factor, S100B, is raised in serum samples of female patients with schizophrenia, but not male patients, compared to controls, and this may be associated with raised BMI. Here we analysed the levels of additional proinflammatory cytokines in patients with schizophrenia to further investigate these gender differences. METHODS The levels of six cytokines (IL1β, IL6, IL8, IL17, IL23, TNFα) were measured in serum samples obtained from patients with schizophrenia, treated with clozapine (n=91) and compared with healthy controls (n=50). Individual cytokine levels were measured using dot-immunoblotting methods and a 'cytokine signature' was also generated by summing all 6 cytokines. Treatment time, patient age, gender, illness severity and metabolic parameters were also measured. RESULTS The levels of proinflammatory cytokines and BMI were significantly raised in female, but not male, patients treated with clozapine compared to healthy controls. Compared to individual cytokines, the 'cytokine signature' analysis showed less scatter of data although this 'cytokine signature' method did not improve separation of individual patients and controls. CONCLUSIONS This study supports previous findings that raised BMI, which is likely associated with increased number of adipocytes, may contribute to increased cytokine serum concentrations in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara E O'Connell
- Drug Development, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland; Neuroscience Center, St. Vincent's Hospital Fairview, Fairview, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jogin Thakore
- Neuroscience Center, St. Vincent's Hospital Fairview, Fairview, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kumlesh K Dev
- Drug Development, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland.
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Abstract
Increased proinflammatory markers like cytokines have been described in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid of patients suffering from schizophrenia. Animal models have shown that a hit in early life to the immune system might trigger a lifelong increased immune reactivity. Many epidemiological and clinical studies show the role of various infectious agents as risk factors for schizophrenia with overlap to other psychoses. The first large-scale epidemiological study in psychiatry from Denmark clearly demonstrates severe infections and autoimmune disorders during lifetime to be risk factors for schizophrenia. Genetic studies have shown the strongest signal for schizophrenia on chromosome 6p22.1, in a region related to the major histocompatibility complex and other immune functions. The vulnerability-stress-inflammation model is important as stress may increase proinflammatory cytokines and even contribute to a lasting proinflammatory state. The immune system itself is considered an important further piece in the puzzle, as in autoimmune disorders in general, which are always linked to three factors: genes, the environment and the immune system. Alterations of dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission have been shown with low-level neuroinflammation and may directly be involved in the generation of schizophrenic symptoms. Loss of central nervous system volume and microglial activation has been demonstrated in schizophrenia in neuroimaging studies, which supports the assumption of a low-level neuroinflammatory process. Further support comes from the therapeutic benefit of anti-inflammatory medications in specific studies and the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory intrinsic effects of antipsychotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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24
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Activation of kynurenine pathway in ex vivo fibroblasts from patients with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia: cytokine challenge increases production of 3-hydroxykynurenine. J Psychiatr Res 2013; 47:1815-23. [PMID: 24012176 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 08/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating data suggest a causative link between immune stimulation, disturbed metabolism of tryptophan, and pathogenesis of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. The goal of this study was to examine the production of kynurenic acid (KYNA), 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) and the expression of kynurenine pathway enzymes involved in their synthesis and metabolism in cultured skin fibroblasts obtained from patients with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia or from healthy control individuals. The assessment was performed under basal conditions or following treatment with interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, or their combinations, in cells exposed to exogenous kynurenine. In both groups of patients, the baseline production of KYNA and 3-HK was increased, as compared to control subjects. Case-treatment analyses revealed significant interactions between bipolar case status and IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ + TNF-α, or IFN-γ + IL-1β, as well as between schizophrenia case status and IL-1β, IFN-γ + TNF-α, or IFN-γ + IL-1β, in terms of higher 3-HK. Noteworthy, no case-treatment interactions in terms of KYNA production were found. Observed changes did not appear to correlate with the expression of genes encoding kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs), kynureninase (KYNU) or kynurenine-3-monooxygenase (KMO). The single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), rs1053230 and rs2275163, in KMO influenced KYNA levels yet did not explain the case-treatment discrepancies. In conclusion, our present findings indicate the utility of skin-derived fibroblasts for kynurenines research and support the concept of kynurenine pathway alterations in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. The increase in ratio between neurotoxic 3-HK and neuroinhibitory/neuroprotective KYNA following exposure to cytokines may account for altered neurogenesis and structural abnormalities characteristic for both diseases.
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25
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Benaroya-Milshtein N, Apter A, Yaniv I, Yuval O, Stern B, Bengal Y, Kodman Y, Shemer E, Pick CG, Buchval I, Valevski A. Neuroimmunological function in parents of children suffering from cancer. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2013; 121:299-306. [PMID: 24150275 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-013-1098-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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26
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Huang KC, Yang KC, Lin H, Tsao Tsun-Hui T, Lee WK, Lee SA, Kao CY. Analysis of schizophrenia and hepatocellular carcinoma genetic network with corresponding modularity and pathways: novel insights to the immune system. BMC Genomics 2013; 14 Suppl 5:S10. [PMID: 24564241 PMCID: PMC3852078 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-s5-s10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Schizophrenic patients show lower incidences of cancer, implicating schizophrenia may be a protective factor against cancer. To study the genetic correlation between the two diseases, a specific PPI network was constructed with candidate genes of both schizophrenia and hepatocellular carcinoma. The network, designated schizophrenia-hepatocellular carcinoma network (SHCN), was analysed and cliques were identified as potential functional modules or complexes. The findings were compared with information from pathway databases such as KEGG, Reactome, PID and ConsensusPathDB. Results The functions of mediator genes from SHCN show immune system and cell cycle regulation have important roles in the eitology mechanism of schizophrenia. For example, the over-expressing schizophrenia candidate genes, SIRPB1, SYK and LCK, are responsible for signal transduction in cytokine production; immune responses involving IL-2 and TREM-1/DAP12 pathways are relevant for the etiology mechanism of schizophrenia. Novel treatments were proposed by searching the target genes of FDA approved drugs with genes in potential protein complexes and pathways. It was found that Vitamin A, retinoid acid and a few other immune response agents modulated by RARA and LCK genes may be potential treatments for both schizophrenia and hepatocellular carcinoma. Conclusions This is the first study showing specific mediator genes in the SHCN which may suppress tumors. We also show that the schizophrenic protein interactions and modulation with cancer implicates the importance of immune system for etiology of schizophrenia.
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Obregon D, Parker-Athill EC, Tan J, Murphy T. Psychotropic effects of antimicrobials and immune modulation by psychotropics: implications for neuroimmune disorders. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 2:331-343. [PMID: 23148142 DOI: 10.2217/npy.12.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial compounds and psychotropic medications often share overlapping mechanisms of actions and pharmacological effects. The immune system appears to be an important site of interaction as several antimicrobials display neurological and, at times, direct psychotropic effects, while psychotropics have shown significant immunomodulatory properties. The isoniazid class of antibiotics for example has been shown to possess monoamine oxidase activity, while selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have shown significant effects on leukocyte populations. As the importance of the immune system's role in CNS homeostasis and disease continues to move to the forefront of neuropsychiatric research, these shared pharmacological effects may provide an important insight, elucidating the complexities in neuroimmune pathophysiology and guiding the development of potential treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Demian Obregon
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Neurosciences, University of South Florida, Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA ; Silver Child Development Center, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Neurosciences, University of South Florida, Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA
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Schwarz E, Guest PC, Rahmoune H, Harris LW, Wang L, Leweke FM, Rothermundt M, Bogerts B, Koethe D, Kranaster L, Ohrmann P, Suslow T, McAllister G, Spain M, Barnes A, van Beveren NJM, Baron-Cohen S, Steiner J, Torrey FE, Yolken RH, Bahn S. Identification of a biological signature for schizophrenia in serum. Mol Psychiatry 2012; 17:494-502. [PMID: 21483431 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2011.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Biomarkers are now used in many areas of medicine but are still lacking for psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (SCZ). We have used a multiplex molecular profiling approach to measure serum concentrations of 181 proteins and small molecules in 250 first and recent onset SCZ, 35 major depressive disorder (MDD), 32 euthymic bipolar disorder (BPD), 45 Asperger syndrome and 280 control subjects. Preliminary analysis resulted in identification of a signature comprised of 34 analytes in a cohort of closely matched SCZ (n=71) and control (n=59) subjects. Partial least squares discriminant analysis using this signature gave a separation of 60-75% of SCZ subjects from controls across five independent cohorts. The same analysis also gave a separation of ~50% of MDD patients and 10-20% of BPD and Asperger syndrome subjects from controls. These results demonstrate for the first time that a biological signature for SCZ can be identified in blood serum. This study lays the groundwork for development of a diagnostic test that can be used as an aid for distinguishing SCZ subjects from healthy controls and from those affected by related psychiatric illnesses with overlapping symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Schwarz
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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The peripheral cerebrospinal fluid outflow pathway – physiology and pathophysiology of CSF recirculation: A review and hypothesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.npbr.2011.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Müller N, Dursun SM. Schizophrenia genes, epigenetics and psychoneuroimmunology therapeutics: all make sense now? J Psychopharmacol 2011; 25:713-4. [PMID: 20194572 DOI: 10.1177/0269881110364268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Genetics, epigenetics, infection as an environmental factor, functional findings for the immune system, and a therapeutic approach with anti-inflammatory therapy provide evidence for a pivotal role of the immune system in schizophrenia. This field, therefore, should focus more on further schizophrenia research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.
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Liu J, Li J, Li T, Wang T, Li Y, Zeng Z, Li Z, Chen P, Hu Z, Zheng L, Ji J, Lin H, Feng G, Shi Y. CTLA-4 confers a risk of recurrent schizophrenia, major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder in the Chinese Han population. Brain Behav Immun 2011; 25:429-33. [PMID: 21040781 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2010.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2010] [Revised: 10/21/2010] [Accepted: 10/23/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have reported that the cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) gene, which is related to immunological function such as T-cell regulation, is associated with psychiatric disorders. In this study, we studied the relationship between CTLA-4 and three major psychiatric disorders, schizophrenia, major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder in the Chinese Han population. We recruited 1140 schizophrenia patients, 1140 major depressive disorder patients, 1140 bipolar disorder patients, and 1140 normal controls to examine the risk conferred by 6 tag SNPs (rs231777, rs231775, rs231779, rs3087243, rs5742909, rs16840252) in the CTLA-4 gene. We found that rs231779 conferred a risk for schizophrenia (P(allele)=0.0003, P(genotype)=0.0016), major depressive disorder (P(allele)=0.0006, P(genotype)=0.0026) and bipolar disorder (P(allele)=0.0004, P(genotype)=0.0018). In addition, rs231777 and rs16840252 had a significant association with schizophrenia (rs231777: P(allele)=0.0201, rs16840252: P(allele)=0.0081, P(genotype)=0.0117), and rs231777 had significant association with bipolar disorder (rs231777: P(allele)=0.0199). However, after 10,000 permutations, only rs231779 remained significant (schizophrenia: P(allele)=0.0010, P(genotype)=0.0145, major depressive disorder: P(allele)=0.0010, P(genotype)=0.0201, bipolar disorder: P(allele)=0.0008, P(genotype)=0.0125). Our results suggest that shared common risk factors for schizophrenia, major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder exist in the CTLA-4 gene in the Chinese Han population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Liu
- Bio-X Center, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, PR China
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Dell'Osso B, Palazzo MC, Oldani L, Altamura AC. The noradrenergic action in antidepressant treatments: pharmacological and clinical aspects. CNS Neurosci Ther 2010; 17:723-32. [PMID: 21155988 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00217.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Even though noradrenaline has been recognized as one of the key neurotransmitters in the pathophysiology of major depression (MD), noradrenergic compounds have been less extensively utilized in clinical practice, compared to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The development of the first selective noradrenergic reuptake inhibitor (NRI), Reboxetine, has not substantially changed the state of the art. In addition, Atomoxetine, a relatively pure NRI used for the treatment of ADHD, has shown mixed results when administered in augmentation to depressed subjects. Through a Medline search from 2000 to 2010, the present article provides an updated overview of the main pharmacological and clinical aspects of antidepressant classes that, partially or selectively, act on the noradrenergic systems. The noradrenergic action plays an important clinical effect in different antidepressant classes, as confirmed by the efficacy of dual action antidepressants such as the serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), the noradrenergic and dopaminergic reuptake inhibitor (NDRI) Bupropion, and other compounds (e.g., Mianserin, Mirtazapine), which enhance the noradrenergic transmission. In addition, many tricyclics, such as Desipramine and Nortriptyline, have prevalent noradrenergic effect. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), moreover, block the breakdown of serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine and increase the availability of these monoamines. A novel class of antidepressants--the triple reuptake inhibitors--is under development to selectively act on serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine. Finally, the antidepressant effect of the atypical antipsychotic Quetiapine, indicated for the treatment of bipolar depression, is likely to be related to the noradrenergic action of its metabolite Norquetiapine. Even though a pure noradrenergic action might not be sufficient to obtain a full antidepressant effect, a pronoradrenergic action represents an important element for increasing the efficacy of mixed action antidepressants. In particular, the noradrenergic action seemed to be related to the motor activity, attention, and arousal.
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Psychological stress-induced, IDO1-dependent tryptophan catabolism: implications on immunosuppression in mice and humans. PLoS One 2010; 5:e11825. [PMID: 20689575 PMCID: PMC2911374 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Accepted: 07/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is increasingly recognized that psychological stress influences inflammatory responses and mood. Here, we investigated whether psychological stress (combined acoustic and restraint stress) activates the tryptophan (Trp) catabolizing enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1(IDO1) and thereby alters the immune homeostasis and behavior in mice. We measured IDO1 mRNA expression and plasma levels of Trp catabolites after a single 2-h stress session and in repeatedly stressed (4.5-days stress, 2-h twice a day) naïve BALB/c mice. A role of cytokines in acute stress-induced IDO1 activation was studied after IFNγ and TNFα blockade and in IDO1−/− mice. RU486 and 1-Methyl-L-tryptophan (1-MT) were used to study role of glucocorticoids and IDO1 on Trp depletion in altering the immune and behavioral response in repeatedly stressed animals. Clinical relevance was addressed by analyzing IDO1 activity in patients expecting abdominal surgery. Acute stress increased the IDO1 mRNA expression in brain, lung, spleen and Peyer's patches (max. 14.1±4.9-fold in brain 6-h after stress) and resulted in a transient depletion of Trp (−25.2±6.6%) and serotonin (−27.3±4.6%) from the plasma measured 6-h after stress while kynurenine levels increased 6-h later (11.2±9.3%). IDO1 mRNA up-regulation was blocked by anti-TNFα and anti-IFNγ treatment. Continuous IDO1 blockade by 1-MT but not RU486 treatment normalized the anti-bacterial defense and attenuated increased IL-10 inducibility in splenocytes after repeated stress as it reduced the loss of body weight and behavioral alterations. Moreover, kynurenic acid which remained increased in 1-MT treated repeatedly stressed mice was identified to reduce the TNFα inducibility of splenocytes in vitro and in vivo. Thus, psychological stress stimulates cytokine-driven IDO1 activation and Trp depletion which seems to have a central role for developing stress-induced immunosuppression and behavioral alteration. Since patients showed Trp catabolism already prior to surgery, IDO is also a possible target enzyme for humans modulating immune homeostasis and mood.
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Rapaport MH, Bresee C. Serial mitogen-stimulated cytokine production from continuously ill patients with schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35:428-34. [PMID: 19759532 PMCID: PMC2794914 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2009.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2009] [Revised: 07/09/2009] [Accepted: 08/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Aberrant activation of the immune system has been implicated in an increasingly large number of disease states and can influence cognition, mood, and memory. There is a long and controversial history of reports of immune activation associated with schizophrenia. In this study, we measured mitogen-stimulated cytokine levels serially in 100 medication-stabilized continuously ill subjects with schizophrenia and compared and contrasted them with mitogen-stimulated cytokine levels from 51 normal volunteers. The subjects with schizophrenia had consistently higher mitogen-stimulated IL-2 levels and lower IL-6 levels than the normal volunteers. These effects could not be explained by medications, smoking, or other clinical variables. We conclude that continuously symptomatic medication-stabilized subjects with schizophrenia have a mitogen-stimulated cytokine expression pattern that is suggestive of ongoing immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Rapaport
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA.
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Immunosuppression Using the Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) Inhibitor Everolimus: Pilot Study Shows Significant Cognitive and Affective Improvement. Transplant Proc 2009; 41:4285-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2009.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2009] [Accepted: 08/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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da Rocha FF, Correa H, Teixeira AL. Obsessive-compulsive disorder and immunology: a review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008; 32:1139-46. [PMID: 18262706 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2007.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2007] [Revised: 12/23/2007] [Accepted: 12/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Interest in the possibility of an immune-mediated pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder and related disorders has increased. In the late 1980s, the National Institute of Mental Health reported an increase in obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) in patients with Sydenham chorea (SC). Subsequently, a precipitating streptococcal infection in children with sudden onset of OCS but no chorea led to the coining of PANDAS (Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection). This association has furthered interest in biological measures for immune and genetic susceptibility in non-PANDAS obsessive-compulsive disorder patients (OCD). Furthermore, some studies are trying to demonstrate alterations of immune parameters in OCD patients, with few positive results. In this narrative review, our objective was to describe the immunologic findings in OCD, PANDAS, and their association with SC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Filardi da Rocha
- Service of Psychiatry, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil; Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
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Immunosuppression routed via the kynurenine pathway: a biochemical and pathophysiologic approach. Adv Clin Chem 2008; 45:155-97. [PMID: 18429497 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2423(07)00007-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the past years, it has been shown that kynurenines pathway is a regulator of both the innate and the adaptive immune responses. Particularly, the initial enzyme of this pathway, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), is implicated in maintaining tolerance during pregnancy, and also can be expressed in tumors to avoid the immune attack. In this chapter, we will describe how the kynurenine pathway affects the immune system with important implications both in physiology and in pathology. The incorrect activation or blockade suppressive properties of the kynurenine pathway are also implicated in a number of other diseases such as AIDS or autoimmune diseases.
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Tonelli LH, Stiller J, Rujescu D, Giegling I, Schneider B, Maurer K, Schnabel A, Möller HJ, Chen HH, Postolache TT. Elevated cytokine expression in the orbitofrontal cortex of victims of suicide. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2008; 117:198-206. [PMID: 18081924 PMCID: PMC2612100 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01128.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Based on the reported association between cytokines with depression and suicide, and evidence of increased markers of inflammation in the brain of suicide victims, the present study examined the expression of cytokines in the orbitofrontal cortex of suicide victims. METHOD In a postmortem sample obtained from the Brodman area 11 of suicides (n = 34) and controls (n = 17), real-time RT-PCR was used to compare the expression of mRNA species for tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin (IL)-1 beta, 4, 5, 6, and 13. RESULTS Increased expression of IL-4 was found in women suicide victims and IL-13 in men suicide victims. Elevated but not significant cytokine expression was also observed for TNF-alpha in women suicide victims. CONCLUSION To our knowledge, these results provide the first evidence of the presence of mRNA transcripts of type 2 T-helper cytokines in the human orbitofrontal cortex and their increased expression in the brain of suicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. H. Tonelli
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - J. Stiller
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD,Neurology Consultation Service, St Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - D. Rujescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - I. Giegling
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - B. Schneider
- Department of Psychiatry, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - K. Maurer
- Department of Psychiatry, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - A. Schnabel
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - H.-J. Möller
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - H. H. Chen
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - T. T. Postolache
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
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Stassen HH, Szegedi A, Scharfetter C. Modeling activation of inflammatory response system: a molecular-genetic neural network analysis. BMC Proc 2007; 1 Suppl 1:S61. [PMID: 18466562 PMCID: PMC2367555 DOI: 10.1186/1753-6561-1-s1-s61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant alterations of T-cell function, along with activation of the inflammatory response system, appear to be linked not only to treatment-resistant schizophrenia, but also to functional psychoses and mood disorders. Because there is a relatively high comorbidity between rheumatoid arthritis (RA), schizophrenia and major depression, the question arises whether there is a common, genetically modulated inflammatory process involved in these disorders. On the basis of three family studies from the U.S. and Europe which were ascertained through an index case suffering from RA (599 nuclear families, 1868 subjects), we aimed to predict the inter-individual variation of autoantibody IgM levels, as an unspecific indicator of inflammatory processes, through molecular-genetic factors. In a three-stage strategy, we first used nonparametric linkage (NPL) analysis to construct an initial configuration of genomic loci showing a sufficiently high NPL score in all three populations. This initial configuration was then modified by iteratively adding or removing genomic loci such that genotype-phenotype correlations were improved. Finally, neural network analysis (NNA) was applied to derive classifiers that predicted the phenotype from the multidimensional genotype. Our analysis led to an activation model that predicted individual IgM levels from the subjects' multidimensional genotypes very reliably. This allowed us to use the activation model for an analysis of the DNA of an existing sample of 1003 psychiatric patients in order to test, in a first approach, whether a deviant, genetically modulated inflammatory process is involved in the pathogenesis of major psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H Stassen
- Psychiatric University Hospital, P.O. Box 1931, CH-8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Armin Szegedi
- Global Clinical Development, Organon International, 56 Livingston Avenue, Roseland, New Jersey 07068, USA
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Pedrosa Gil F, Schwarz MJ, Müller N, Nickel M, Ridout N, Schmidmaier R. Significant alterations in peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets in patients with somatoform disorder. Acta Neuropsychiatr 2007; 19:368-75. [PMID: 26953003 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-5215.2007.00233.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Previous studies have suggested that somatoform disorders (SFD) might be associated with changes in the function of the central and autonomic nervous systems. The aim of this study was to examine the possible immunological differences between SFD and healthy controls. METHODS Twenty-four patients with SFD and 13 healthy individuals completed the psychological questionnaires to assess symptom reporting [Symptom Checklist-90 Revised (SCL-90-R)] and to diagnose for SFD [Screening for Somatoform Symptoms scale (SOMS-scale)]. Participants also provided a blood sample taken in the morning, which was analysed with an automated cell counter to determine the number of leucocytes per μl and with flow cytometry to determine lymphocyte subsets. RESULTS With the exception of a higher T4/T8 ratio in the patient group, which was mainly because of lower CD8 counts, there were no significant differences in the absolute number of lymphocytes (subsets) between patients with SFD and healthy subjects. A positive correlation between B-lymphocyte subsets (CD19+CD22+, CD19+CD5+, CD19+CD3-) to all scales of the SCL-90-R, except somatisation, were found in SFD. Additionally, a positive correlation was found in SFD between CD14+CD16+ monocytes and somatisation (0.573) on the SCL-90-R scale. CONCLUSION These data indicate that patients with SFD have an enhanced humoral immunity as shown by increased B-cell numbers and furthermore an elevated T4/T8 ratio because of lower CD8 suppressor cells. Further studies will be required to determine whether these alterations in lymphocyte subsets are directly involved in the pathophysiology of SFD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Pedrosa Gil
- 1Psychosomatic Out-Patient Clinic, Department of Internal Medicine Innenstadt, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Markus J Schwarz
- 2Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Norbert Müller
- 2Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Marius Nickel
- 3University Clinic for Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Medical University Graz, Bad Aussee, Austria
| | - Nathan Ridout
- 4Clinical and Cognitive Neurosciences Institute, School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Ralf Schmidmaier
- 5Department of Haematology and Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine Innenstadt, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
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Arion D, Unger T, Lewis DA, Levitt P, Mirnics K. Molecular evidence for increased expression of genes related to immune and chaperone function in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62:711-21. [PMID: 17568569 PMCID: PMC2080683 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2006] [Revised: 12/20/2006] [Accepted: 12/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is characterized by complex gene expression changes. The transcriptome alterations in the prefrontal cortex have been the subject of several recent postmortem studies that yielded both convergent and divergent findings. METHODS To increase measurement precision, we used a custom-designed DNA microarray platform with long oligonucleotides and multiple probes with replicates. The platform was designed to assess the expression of > 1800 genes specifically chosen because of their hypothesized roles in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. The gene expression differences in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex samples from 14 matched pairs of schizophrenia and control subjects were analyzed with two technical replicates and four data mining approaches. RESULTS In addition to replicating many expression changes in synaptic, oligodendrocyte, and signal transduction genes, we uncovered and validated a robust immune/chaperone transcript upregulation in the schizophrenia samples. CONCLUSIONS We speculate that the overexpression of SERPINA3, IFITM1, IFITM2, IFITM3, CHI3L1, MT2A, CD14, HSPB1, HSPA1B, and HSPA1A in schizophrenia subjects represents a long-lasting and correlated signature of an early environmental insult during development that actively contributes to the pathophysiology of prefrontal dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Arion
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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42
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Yang GB, Qiu CL, Aye P, Shao Y, Lackner AA. Expression of serotonin transporters by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Cell Immunol 2007; 248:69-76. [PMID: 17980355 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2007.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2007] [Revised: 09/16/2007] [Accepted: 09/18/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
It has been well established that serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) plays a key role in neuro-endocrine-immune networks, mostly through its receptors and/or transporters. Although the presence of 5-HT receptor mRNAs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of rhesus monkeys has been reported, there is little information about serotonin transporter (SERT) expression by these cells. To examine SERT expression at the transcription and translation level, one-step RT-PCR, confocal microscopy and flow cytometry were used to detect SERT mRNA and protein expression by rhesus monkey PBMCs. It was found that SERT mRNA could be detected by RT-PCR from all of the rhesus macaque PBMC RNA samples and the nucleotide sequence of the amplicons was identical to the published SERT mRNA sequence. Low level SERT immunoreactivity was also demonstrated on the surface of rhesus PBMCs by confocal microscopy. Almost all lymphocytes and most monocytes were positive for SERT by flow cytometry. In the 2 rhesus macaques examined by multicolor flow cytometry, SERT(bright) cells were more than 84%, 94%, and 96% among CD20+, CD3+, and CD3+CD4+ lymphocytes respectively. These data demonstrate expression of SERT by rhesus macaque PBMCs, and indicate that rhesus macaques would be suitable models to test the in vivo immune regulatory effects of 5-HT or drugs targeting SERT.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, China-CDC, 27 Nanwei Road, Xuanwu District, Beijing 100050, PR China.
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Pae CU, Mandelli L, Serretti A, Patkar AA, Kim JJ, Lee CU, Lee SJ, Lee C, De Ronchi D, Paik IH. Heat-shock protein-70 genes and response to antidepressants in major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007; 31:1006-11. [PMID: 17428599 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2007.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2006] [Revised: 01/24/2007] [Accepted: 02/15/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In the search of predictors of antidepressant efficacy, much interest has recently focused on pro-inflammatory proteins, as they were found to be elevated during major depressives states and decreased by antidepressant drugs. In the present paper we investigated the role of the genes coding for heat-shock-70 family proteins, recently hypothesized to be activated by antidepressants and thus mediate the reduction of pro-inflammatory cytosines. One hundred and forty two hospitalised patients, affected by major depression and treated with antidepressants drugs for a major depressive episode were evaluated for depressive severity at the baseline and at the discharge and genotyped for five SNPs within the genes HSPA1L, HSPA1A and HSPA1B. Markers were not individually associated with symptom severity after treatment. Instead, we found a three markers haplotype, including SNPs within HSPA1L and HSPA1A, associated with a poorer response to antidepressant treatment (p=0.005). Single markers as well as haplotypes were not associated with other clinical features. In conclusion, genetic variants within the genes coding for HSP-70 family proteins may affect the action of antidepressants and thus their therapeutic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Un Pae
- Department of Psychiatry, Kangnam St Mary's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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