Characterization of Endotrypanum (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae), a unique parasite infecting the neotropical tree sloths (Edentata)

Molecular detection and lineage differentiation of Trypanosoma cruzi in dogs from a metropolitan area of Central México: Implications for urban zoonotic transmission

Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease, a zoonotic infection that affects millions of people across the Americas. Despite its well-documented presence in rural and wild environments, little is known about its transmission dynamics in rapidly urbanizing areas. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of T. cruzi in domestic dogs from the Metropolitan Area of Querétaro, Mexico, a region where no formal studies of Chagas disease transmission have been conducted. A total of 303 canine blood samples were analyzed using PCR, and 5.9 % tested positive for T. cruzi. Lineage-specific PCR revealed that both TcI and TcII strains were present, suggesting complex transmission cycles potentially involving both wild and domestic reservoirs. These findings underscore the need for further research on vector ecology and the role of urban wildlife in maintaining T. cruzi transmission, highlighting an emerging risk for urban populations.

Genomes of Endotrypanum monterogeii from Panama and Zelonia costaricensis from Brazil: Expansion of Multigene Families in Leishmaniinae Parasites That Are Close Relatives of Leishmania spp

The Leishmaniinae subfamily of the Trypanosomatidae contains both genus Zelonia (monoxenous) and Endotrypanum (dixenous). They are amongst the nearest known relatives of Leishmania, which comprises many human pathogens widespread in the developing world. These closely related lineages are models for the genomic biology of monoxenous and dixenous parasites. Herein, we used comparative genomics to identify the orthologous groups (OGs) shared among 26 Leishmaniinae species to investigate gene family expansion/contraction and applied two phylogenomic approaches to confirm relationships within the subfamily. The Endotrypanum monterogeii and Zelonia costaricensis genomes were assembled, with sizes of 29.9 Mb and 38.0 Mb and 9.711 and 12.201 predicted protein-coding genes, respectively. The genome of E. monterogeii displayed a higher number of multicopy cell surface protein families, including glycoprotein 63 and glycoprotein 46, compared to Leishmania spp. The genome of Z. costaricensis presents expansions of BT1 and amino acid transporters and proteins containing leucine-rich repeat domains, as well as a loss of ABC-type transporters. In total, 415 and 85 lineage-specific OGs were identified in Z. costaricensis and E. monterogeii. The evolutionary relationships within the subfamily were confirmed using the supermatrix (3384 protein-coding genes) and supertree methods. Overall, this study showed new expansions of multigene families in monoxenous and dixenous parasites of the subfamily Leishmaniinae.

Use of light emitting diodes (LEDs) are effective and useful for sand fly ecoepidemiology studies in an Amazonian environment

One strategy to identify transmission foci is based on vector monitoring, and efficient methods are important for vector control. Our study evaluated different light sources (red, green, ultraviolet, blue, and incandescent light) to capture sand fly in Porto Velho, Brazil. We also evaluated Leishmania and blood meal sources in females. A total of 1,943 individuals were identified in 45 species level-taxa, with Trichophoromyia ubiquitalis (Mangabeira) (n=364), Nyssomyia antunesi (n=241), Bichromomyia flaviscutellata (Mangabeira) (n=222), and Psychodopygus davisi (Root) (n=148) being the most abundant. Incandescent light captured most individuals (n=589), followed by blue (n=471), green (n=452), ultraviolet (n=281) and red (n=150). No significant difference was observed between the species composition and lights (PERMANOVA: Pseudo F = 1.29, p = 0.14, NMDS: Stress 0.18). The Shannon and Simpson indices demonstrated a high diversity captured using all lights. Our data demonstrated that LEDs are alternative devices for sand fly capture, with blue and green LEDs presenting similar results to incandescent light. 53 pools were analyzed, only one pool was positive for kDNA and hsp70 targets [Nyssomyia fraihai (Martins, Falão & Silva)] and identified as Endotrypanum spp., suggesting that other trypanosomatids may circulate in the locality. Choloepus hoffmanni (two-toed sloth) Peters, Homo sapiens Linnaeus, Proechimys gardneri (Gardner's spiny rat) Da Silva, and Tamandua tetradactyla (lesser anteater) (Linnaeus) were blood meal sources identified in females, increasing the knowledge about sources used by these insects.

Total Ortholog Median Matrix as an alternative unsupervised approach for phylogenomics based on evolutionary distance between protein coding genes

The increasing number of available genomic data allowed the development of phylogenomic analytical tools. Current methods compile information from single gene phylogenies, whether based on topologies or multiple sequence alignments. Generally, phylogenomic analyses elect gene families or genomic regions to construct phylogenomic trees. Here, we presented an alternative approach for Phylogenomics, named TOMM (Total Ortholog Median Matrix), to construct a representative phylogram composed by amino acid distance measures of all pairwise ortholog protein sequence pairs from desired species inside a group of organisms. The procedure is divided two main steps, (1) ortholog detection and (2) creation of a matrix with the median amino acid distance measures of all pairwise orthologous sequences. We tested this approach within three different group of organisms: Kinetoplastida protozoa, hematophagous Diptera vectors and Primates. Our approach was robust and efficacious to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships for the three groups. Moreover, novel branch topologies could be achieved, providing insights about some phylogenetic relationships between some taxa.

IDLY INFECTED: A REVIEW OF INFECTIOUS AGENTS IN POPULATIONS OF TWO- AND THREE-TOED SLOTHS (CHOLOEPUS SPECIES AND BRADYPUS SPECIES)

Two- and three-toed sloths (Choloepus spp. and Bradypus spp.) have become popular animals in American culture and in American zoos, where they are frequently used as animal ambassadors. Despite the increased focus on sloth species, the prevalence of infectious diseases in sloth populations and the associated clinical consequences are relatively unknown. This study reviewed all published literature from 1809 to 2019 that examined infectious agents in both captive and wild populations of either two- or three-toed sloths. Online databases were electronically searched for relevant manuscripts using strings of inclusion and exclusion terms, resulting in an initial identification of 5,364 articles. After removing duplications and conducting two relevance screenings, 57 manuscripts were included in the full review. A total of 1,769 individual two-toed sloths and 879 individual three-toed sloths were accounted for in the included studies, with evidence of infection or exposure to infectious agents in 647 (36.6%) and 222 (25.3%) individual two- and three-toed sloths, respectively. Approximately 74% of documented infections were cryptic fungal, parasitic, and viral infections. The remaining 26% of infections represent those that were associated with clinical signs of disease. The infectious agents reported were bacterial (84), parasitic (20), viral (9), and fungal (4). Significant knowledge gaps remain regarding clinical and subclinical infectious disease prevalence and impact in both free-ranging and captive sloths.

Revised classification of the subfamily Leishmaniinae (Trypanosomatidae)

In the present study, we critically revised the recently proposed classification of the subfamily Leishmaniinae Maslov et Lukeš in Jirků et al., 2012. Agreeing with erection of the genus Zelonia Shaw, Camargo et Teixeira in Espinosa et al., 2017 and the subgenus Mundinia Shaw, Camargo et Teixeira in Espinosa et al., 2017 within the genus Leishmania Ross, 1908, we argue that other changes are not well justified. We propose to: (i) raise Paraleishmania Cupolillo, Medina-Acosta, Noyes, Momen et Grimaldi, 2000 to generic rank; (ii) create a new genus Borovskyia gen. n. to accommodate the former Leptomonas barvae Maslov et Lukeš, 2010 as its type and only species; (iii) leave the subfamily Leishmaniinae as originally defined, but establish two infrafamilies within it: Leishmaniatae infrafam. n. and Crithidiatae infrafam. n.

A New Species of Sand Fly, Psathyromyia elizabethdorvalae sp. n. (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae), From Brazil

A new species of phlebotomine sand fly, Psathyromyia elizabethdorvalae sp. n. Brilhante, Sábio & Galati from Xapuri, Acre state, Brazil, is described, with illustrations of male and female adults.

First Human Cases of Leishmania (Viannia) lainsoni Infection and a Search for the Vector Sand Flies in Ecuador

An epidemiological study of leishmaniasis was performed in Amazonian areas of Ecuador since little information on the prevalent Leishmania and sand fly species responsible for the transmission is available. Of 33 clinical specimens from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), causative parasites were identified in 25 samples based on cytochrome b gene analysis. As reported previously, Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis and L. (V.) braziliensis were among the causative agents identified. In addition, L. (V.) lainsoni, for which infection is reported in Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Suriname, and French Guiana, was identified in patients with CL from geographically separate areas in the Ecuadorian Amazon, corroborating the notion that L. (V.) lainsoni is widely distributed in South America. Sand flies were surveyed around the area where a patient with L. (V.) lainsoni was suspected to have been infected. However, natural infection of sand flies by L. (V.) lainsoni was not detected. Further extensive vector searches are necessary to define the transmission cycle of L. (V.) lainsoni in Ecuador.

In Ecuador, leishmaniasis is endemic in Pacific coast subtropical, Amazonian, and Andean highland areas. Seven Leishmania species, Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana, L. (L.) amazonensis, L. (L.) major-like, Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis, L. (V.) panamensis, L. (V.) braziliensis, and L. (V.) naiffi, are reported to be associated with human cutaneous (CL) and mucocutaneous leishmaniases (MCL). Causative parasites have been studied extensively in Pacific coast and Andean areas; however, information such as prevalent Leishmania species and their vector sand fly species is very sparse in Amazonian areas. Giemsa-stained smears taken from patients’ skin ulcers and used for routine diagnosis of CL and Flinders Technology Associates (FTA) card-spotted samples were utilized as DNA sources, and causative parasites were identified on the basis of cytochrome b gene analysis. Causative parasites in 25 samples were successfully identified, and, in addition to previously reported species, L. (V.) guyanensis and L. (V.) braziliensis, L. (V.) lainsoni was identified from two patients living in different areas situated more than 200 km apart. Sand flies were examined in areas where one of the L. (V.) lainsoni infected patient was suspected to have been infected. Although 1,104 female sand flies were dissected and examined for species identification and detection of natural infection with flagellates in the gut, human-infective Leishmania species including L. (V.) lainsoni were not detected. Further extensive investigation of sand fly fauna is necessary to incriminate the vector of this parasite in Ecuador.

PHLEBOTOMINE FAUNA (DIPTERA: PSYCHODIDAE) IN AN AREA OF FISHING TOURISM IN CENTRAL-WESTERN BRAZIL

The aim of this study was to identify behavioral aspects of the sandfly fauna of a fishing tourism area in the municipality of Bonito (MS). Monthly captures were undertaken from December 2009 to November 2010, using automatic CDC type light traps, from 18h00 to 06h00, in a forested area, a savannah area, peridomiciles and animal shelters near peridomiciliary areas. Nyssomyia whitmani was the most frequent out of a total of 6,699 specimens collected, belonging to 16 species, followed by Psathyromyia bigeniculata and Lutzomyia longipalpis, found in all the environments investigated, though in their greatest numbers in the animal shelters. Ny. whitmani exhibited its highest frequencies during the dry months, coincident with the fishing season, when the risk of transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis for tourists and inhabitants increases. Noteworthy was the finding of two species naturally infected by flagellates: Ny. whitmani and Pa. bigeniculata. The local population and visiting tourists should be warned of the threat posed by leishmaniasis and the health authorities alerted to the need for adopting environmental sanitary measures, especially regarding such animal shelters as they seem to provide favorable conditions to the proliferation, maintenance and breeding opportunities of phlebotomines.

First human cases of Leishmania (Viannia) naiffi infection in Ecuador and identification of its suspected vector species

Epidemiological surveillance of leishmaniasis was conducted in a northern Amazonian region of Ecuador, in which cutaneous leishmaniasis cases were recently reported. Sand flies were captured in the military training camp, and the natural infection of sand flies by Leishmania species was examined. Out of 334 female sand flies dissected, the natural infection by flagellates was microscopically detected in 3.9% of Lutzomyia yuilli yuilli and 3.7% of Lutzomyia tortura, and the parasite species were identified as Endotrypanum and Leishmania (Viannia) naiffi, respectively. After the sand fly surveillance, specimens from cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) patients considered to have acquired the infection in the training camp area were obtained, and the infected parasite species were identified as L. (V.) naiffi. The present study reported first cases of CL caused by L. (V.) naiffi infection in Ecuador. In addition, a high ratio of infection of Lu. tortura by L. (V.) naiffi in the same area strongly suggested that Lu. tortura is responsible for the transmission of L. (V.) naiffi in this area.

Heterogeneous production of metallo-type peptidases in parasites belonging to the family Trypanosomatidae

Proteolytic enzymes play a central role in the physiology of all living organisms, participating in several metabolic pathways and in different phases of parasite-host interactions. We have identified cell-associated peptidase activities in 33 distinct flagellates, including representatives of almost all known trypanosomatid genera parasitizing insects (Herpetomonas, Crithidia, Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Leptomonas, Phytomonas, Blastocrithidia and Endotrypanum) as well as the biflagellate kinetoplastid Bodo, by using SDS-PAGE containing gelatin as co-polymerized substrate and proteolytic inhibitors. Under the alkaline pH (9.0) conditions employed, all the flagellates presented at least one peptidase, with the exception of Crithidia acanthocephali and Phytomonas serpens, which did not display any detectable proteolytic enzyme activity. All the proteolytic activities were completely inhibited by 1,10-phenanthroline, a zinc-chelating agent, putatively identifying these activities as metallo-type peptidases. EDTA and EGTA, two other metallopeptidase inhibitors, E-64 (a cysteine peptidase inhibitor), pepstatin A (an aspartyl peptidase inhibitor) and PMSF (a serine peptidase inhibitor) did not interfere with the metallopeptidase activities detected in the studied trypanosomatids. Conversely, Bodo-derived peptidases were resistant to 1,10-phenanthroline and only partially inhibited by EDTA, showing a distinct inhibition profile. Together, our data demonstrated great heterogeneity of expression of metallopeptidases in a wide range of parasites belonging to the family Trypanosomatidae.

Identification of endotrypanum species from a sloth, a squirrel and Lutzomyia sandflies in ecuador by PCR amplification and sequencing of the mini-exon gene

PCR amplification and nucleotide sequencing of the mini-exon gene revealed that four strains isolated from a sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni), a squirrel (Sciurus granatensis) and two sandflies (Lutzomyia hartmanni) in Ecuador were indistinguishable from Endotrypanum monterogeii. Another strain isolated from Lu. hartmanni showed the high sequence similarity to E. schaudinni. Since three of these strains have been previously identified as Leishmania (Viannia) equatorensis, the results demonstrate that L. (V.) equatorensis is genetically closely related to the genus Endotrypanum. The present study also indicates that Endotrypanum species are distributed in arboreal animals and sandflies in Ecuador, and that mini-exon gene amplification is useful for epidemiological studies of Leishmania and Endotrypanum in the New World.

Estratificação vertical da fauna de flebótomos (Diptera, Psychodidae) numa floresta primária de terra firme da Amazônia Central, Estado do Amazonas, Brasil

Estudos sobre a estratificação vertical da fauna de flebótomos, foram realizados numa floresta primária de terra firme, da Estação Experimental de Silvicultura Tropical - Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, durante os meses de outubro de 1998 a março de 1999. Utilizando-se armadilhas luminosas CDC, colocadas a 1, 10 e 20 metros de altura do solo, foram coletados 2.859 flebótomos, pertencentes a dois gêneros, Lutzomyia (99,93 %) e Brumtomyia (0,07%), abrangendo 38 espécies. Dentro do gênero Lutzomyia, os sub-gêneros mais representados foram Nyssomyia, com 43,4%, e Psychodopygus com 22,8%. As espécies Lutzomyia umbratilis, L. anduzei, L. rorotaensis, L. trichopyga e L. olmeca nociva, foram dominantes a 1m de altura, enquanto que L. davisi, L. infraspinosa, L. umbratilis, L. trichopyga e L. anduzei, foram dominantes a 10m. As espécies L. anduzei, L. tuberculata, L. dendrophyla e L. dreisbachi foram mais abundantes a 20m. L. umbratilis, presente nos três níveis de estratificação vertical, é dotada de alta importância epidemiológica como vetora da Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis.

Minicircle kDNA microheterogeneity in Endotrypanum indicate diversity within this genus

A comparison of kDNA restriction-endonuclease fragment patterns from strains representing selected Endotrypanum zymodemes was done by schizodeme analysis. As the degree of heterogeneity within mini-circles varied among species or strains of Endotrypanum, the fingerprint obtained with each of the restriction enzymes was unique for each of these parasites. The data have revealed that this trypanosomatid genus is much more complex than it was originally thought to be.