AN EVALUATION OF INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY FOR DETECTION OF BUMBLEFOOT (PODODERMATITIS) IN PENGUINS

Changes in Environment and Management Practices Improve Foot Health in Zoo-Housed Flamingos

Foot lesions are a highly prevalent phenomenon among zoo-housed flamingos, with up to 99.8% of birds affected. These lesions are a recognized welfare concern, increasing the likelihood of bacterial infections, and even septicemia. Although several risk factors have been linked to foot lesions in flamingos (including age, climate, and substrate), there have been few studies looking at changes in foot lesions over time. This study tracked changes in foot lesions for an individual flock of Chilean Flamingos (97 birds) at Dublin Zoo, Ireland, over an 18-month period in response to a mandatory indoor housing order imposed by the Irish Government as a seasonal precautionary measure to prevent the spread of avian influenza. Using a pre-defined scoring system for four common types of foot lesions (hyperkeratosis, fissures, nodular lesions, and papillomatous growths), we show that providing unrestricted access to outdoor habitats and natural substrates (both terrestrial and aquatic) can improve the health and wellbeing of zoo-housed flamingos. This longitudinal study highlights the importance of regular foot health monitoring in flamingos, and the importance of natural aquatic substrates when managing flamingos. As many zoo-housed birds have been spending more time indoors on artificial substrates over recent years due to avian influenza housing orders, it is critical that we assess the impact of such changes in management and habitat access on bird health and welfare.

Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation

Each year in the United States, thousands of sick, injured, or displaced wild animals are presented to individuals or organizations who have either a federal or state permit that allows them to care for these animals with the goal of releasing them back to the wild. The purpose of this review is to demonstrate the complexity of considerations rehabilitators and veterinarians face while trying to optimize the welfare of wild animals in need of care and rehabilitation. The process of rehabilitation is inherently stressful for wildlife. Maintaining an animal's welfare during the rehabilitation process-from initial contact and tria+ge to the animal's euthanasia, release, or captive placement-requires deliberate, timely and humane decision making. The welfare of wild animals can be improved by preventing human-related causes of admission, providing resources and support for wildlife rehabilitation (almost all rehabilitation in the United States is privately funded and access to veterinary care is often limited); further developing evidence-based wildlife rehabilitation methods and welfare measures, attracting more veterinary professionals to the field, harmonizing regulatory oversight with standards of care, training, and accountability, and increasing public education.

Thermal Imaging to Assess the Health Status in Wildlife Animals under Human Care: Limitations and Perspectives

Promoting animal welfare in wildlife species under human care requires the implementation of techniques for continuously monitoring their health. Infrared thermography is a non-invasive tool that uses the radiation emitted from the skin of animals to assess their thermal state. However, there are no established thermal windows in wildlife species because factors such as the thickness or color of the skin, type/length of coat, or presence of fur can influence the readings taken to obtain objective, sensitive values. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the usefulness and application of the ocular, nasal, thoracic, abdominal, and podal anatomical regions as thermal windows for evaluating zoo animals' thermal response and health status. A literature search of the Web of Science, Science Direct, and PubMed databases was performed to identify relevant studies that used IRT with wild species as a complementary diagnostic tool. Implementing IRT in zoos or conservation centers could also serve as a method for determining and monitoring optimal habitat designs to meet the needs of specific animals. In addition, we analyze the limitations of using IRT with various wildlife species under human care to understand better the differences among animals and the factors that must be considered when using infrared thermography.

RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY OF AFRICAN PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS DEMERSUS) UNDER MANAGED CARE IN NORTH AMERICA: 2007-2018

Currently, more than 20% (51/240) of zoos and aquariums accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums house African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in their collections. The African penguin Species Survival Plan (SSP) veterinary advisors regularly collect information from those facilities to characterize morbidity and mortality for this species and to collate preventative medicine and treatment regimens. These efforts resulted in more than 10 yr of collection of management data across the SSP, representing the care and management of more than a thousand birds. The most common morbidities reported included those of dermatologic (27%, 125/452 institutions) and musculoskeletal or neurologic (18%, 82/452 institutions) disease, while the most common causes of mortality were respiratory diseases (20%, 65/323 deaths) and systemic or multifactorial conditions (19%, 62/323 deaths). Aspergillosis cases accounted for 69% (45/65 deaths) of respiratory-related mortality and avian malaria cases comprised 31% (19/62 deaths) of mortality related to systemic diseases. Mortality was most commonly reported in geriatric birds, or those older than 15 yr of age (34%, 111/323 deaths). Reproductive related mortality was only defined in female birds, while other causes of death were more evenly distributed between sexes. Utilizing the SSP data to determine morbidity and mortality trends within this population provides important information to veterinary and animal care teams, allowing them to provide enhanced levels of care to the penguins housed at their institutions. By recognizing the most important diseases and causes of death in this species, management and healthcare resources can target conditions with the highest impact on the population.

Thermal Image Scanning for the Early Detection of Fever Induced by Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Infection in Chickens and Ducks and Its Application in Farms

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is considered as one of the most devastating poultry diseases. It is imperative to immediately report any known outbreaks to the World Organization for Animal Health. Early detection of infected birds is of paramount importance to control virus spread, thus minimizing the associated economic loss. In this study, thermal imaging camera devices were used to detect change in the maximum surface temperature (MST) of chickens (n = 5) and ducks (n = 2) as an early indicator of experimental HPAI infection. The MST of both chickens and ducks increased at least 24 h before the manifestation of clinical signs of HPAI infection, depending on the severity of the infection. The basal MST was recorded for broiler chickens housed under small pen and normal farm conditions without intentional infection. A threshold cutoff of MST was established based on the circadian rhythm of normal MST. This study suggests that thermal imaging of chickens and ducks is a promising tool to screen any potential HPAI-infected flock in order to expedite HPAI diagnosis.

Pilot Study: Correlation of the Surface Skin Temperature Between the Leg and Foot Using Thermographic Imaging in Captive Hawks

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the thermal image temperatures of the tibiotarsal scaled region of the raptor leg and the plantar surface of ipsilateral foot while perching were correlated. The correlation between leg and foot temperature was sought to determine whether remote imaging of the legs can be used as a reliable predictor of foot temperature. The right and left tarsometatarsal region (Leg) and metatarsal pad (Foot) of 10 captive hawks, including 8 red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), 1 Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus), and 1 Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni) were imaged once daily over 3 consecutive days. To account for conditions of the metatarsal pad that might affect the thermal image, 3 groups were identified: Normal, Active when mild hyperemia was present, and Suspect when abrasions were noted. A significant correlation was evident when thermography readings of the tarsometatarsal region (R.Leg and L.Leg) of the unrestrained bird were compared with readings from the plantar surface of the ipsilateral metatarsal pad when restrained (R.Foot and L.Foot). The correlations for R.Leg versus R.Foot (r = 0.81) and L.Leg versus L.Foot (r = 0.74) suggest that temperatures of the tarsometatarsal region of perching hawks measured by infrared thermography may be useful to screen and monitor for the presence of thermal changes associated with inflammation of the metatarsal pad in captive hawk species.

EVALUATION OF THE INTER- AND INTRAINDIVIDUAL AGREEMENT OF A PODODERMATITIS SCORING MODEL IN GREATER FLAMINGOS (PHOENICOPTERUS ROSEUS)

Pododermatitis is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in flamingos under human care; management and treatment options vary widely based on subjective assessment from veterinarians or animal care staff (ACS). The objective of this study was to evaluate the agreement of pododermatitis severity scores assigned by veterinarians, ACS, and veterinary students when given a standardized rubric. Twenty-four greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) from a single zoo-managed flock were evaluated over time for pododermatitis. The individual feet of each bird were imaged, blinded, randomized, and scored for hyperkeratosis, fissures, nodules, papillomatous growth, and overall subjective score by seven evaluators (three veterinary specialists, two ACS, and two veterinary students) using a previously established flamingo pododermatitis scoring rubric. Interindividual reliability between evaluators and intraindividual agreement among specialists was determined. Reliable interindividual agreement was seen for fissures (Krippendorff's α [KA] = 0.807) between all seven evaluators, whereas the other individual lesions had very low reliability. Between the specialists, fissures had low interindividual reliability (KA = 0.782). Two specialists had strong intraindividual agreement for fissure score and one specialist had strong intraindividual agreement for overall subjective score (Cohen's κ [CK] 0.8-0.9, P < 0.01). Hyperkeratosis, papillomatous growth, nodules, and overall subjective score had low to moderate inter- and intraindividual reliability or agreement (KA, 0.06-0.49; CK, 0.02-0.8). In conclusion, the current scoring method for flamingo pododermatitis does not supply a reliable method for tracking foot health based on images alone across timepoints, except for fissures. Further analysis of the scoring system being used during a physical examination is warranted.

Smartphone-Based Device in Exotic Pet Medicine

This article reviews the use of the smartphone in exotic pet medicine. The mobile app is the most instinctive use of the smartphone; however, there are very limited software dedicated to the exotic pet specifically. With an adapter, the smartphone can be attached to a regular endoscope and acts as a small endoscopic unit. Additional devices, such as infrared thermography or ultrasound, can be connected to the smartphone through the micro-USB port. The medical use of the smartphone is still in its infancy in veterinary medicine but can bring several solutions to the exotic pet practitioner and improve point-of-care evaluation.

Reporting of thermography parameters in biology: a systematic review of thermal imaging literature

Infrared (IR) thermography, where temperature measurements are made with IR cameras, has proven to be a very useful and widely used tool in biological science. Several thermography parameters are critical to the proper operation of thermal cameras and the accuracy of measurements, and these must usually be provided to the camera. Failure to account for these parameters may lead to less accurate measurements. Furthermore, the failure to provide information of parameter choices in reports may compromise appraisal of accuracy and replicate studies. In this review, we investigate how well biologists report thermography parameters. This is done through a systematic review of biological thermography literature that included articles published between years 2007 and 2017. We found that in primary biological thermography papers, which make some kind of quantitative temperature measurement, 48% fail to report values used for emissivity (an object's capacity to emit thermal radiation relative to a black body radiator), which is the minimum level of reporting that should take place. This finding highlights the need for life scientists to take into account and report key parameter information when carrying out thermography, in the future.