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Egan S, Barbosa AD, Feng Y, Xiao L, Ryan U. Minimal zoonotic risk of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis from frogs and reptiles. Eur J Protistol 2024; 93:126066. [PMID: 38442435 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2024.126066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
The zoonotic potential of the protist parasites Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in amphibians and reptiles raises public health concerns due to their growing popularity as pets. This review examines the prevalence and diversity of these parasites in wild and captive amphibians and reptiles to better understand the zoonotic risk. Research on Giardia in both groups is limited, and zoonotic forms of Cryptosporidium or Giardia have not been reported in amphibians. Host-adapted Cryptosporidium species dominate in reptiles, albeit some reptiles have been found to carry zoonotic (C. hominis and C. parvum) and rodent-associated (C. tyzzeri, C. muris and C. andersoni) species, primarily through mechanical carriage. Similarly, the limited reports of Giardia duodenalis (assemblages A, B and E) in reptiles may also be due to mechanical carriage. Thus, the available evidence indicates minimal zoonotic risk associated with these organisms in wild and captive frogs and reptiles. The exact transmission routes for these infections within reptile populations remain poorly understood, particularly regarding the importance of mechanical carriage. Although the risk appears minimal, continued research and surveillance efforts are necessary to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the transmission dynamics and ultimately improve our ability to safeguard human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhon Egan
- Harry Butler Institute, Vector- and Water-Borne Pathogen Research Group, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia.
| | - Amanda D Barbosa
- Harry Butler Institute, Vector- and Water-Borne Pathogen Research Group, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia; CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasilia, DF 70040-020, Brazil
| | - Yaoyu Feng
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Lihua Xiao
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Una Ryan
- Harry Butler Institute, Vector- and Water-Borne Pathogen Research Group, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia
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Sutherland M, Baron H, Llinas J. Recommended Health Care and Disease-Prevention Programs for Herds/Flocks of Exotic Animals. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2021; 24:697-737. [PMID: 34366015 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Preventative health care is an essential part of the ownership and veterinary management of exotic animals. This article provides an overview of the current recommendations for health care and disease-prevention programs for herds or flocks of exotic animals, specifically companion and aviary birds, backyard poultry; snakes, lizards, chelonians, and amphibians; rabbits, ferrets, and common exotic small mammals. Husbandry practices, disease screening suggestions and techniques, and vaccination strategies, where appropriate, are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hamish Baron
- The Unusual Pet Vets, 210 Karingal Drive, Frankston, VIC 3199, Australia
| | - Joshua Llinas
- The Unusual Pet Vets, 62 Looranah Street, Jindalee, QLD 4074, Australia
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3
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O'Leary JK, Blake L, Corcoran GD, Sleator RD, Lucey B. Development of a novel, high resolution melting analysis based genotyping method for Cryptosporidium parvum. Eur J Protistol 2021; 79:125799. [PMID: 34044353 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2021.125799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This study employed the post-real-time PCR application, high resolution melting (HRM) analysis, in order to differentiate between characterised clinical and reference Cryptosporidium parvum samples obtained from Cork University Hospital (Cork, Ireland) and the Cryptosporidium Reference Unit (Swansea, Wales). A sample set composed of 18 distinct C. parvum gp60-subtypes of the IIa gp60-subtype family (an allele family accounting for over 80% of all cryptosporidiosis cases in Ireland) was employed. HRM analysis-based interrogation of the gp60, MM5 and MS9-Mallon tandem repeat loci was found to completely differentiate between 10 of the 18 studied gp60-subtypes. The remaining eight gp60-subtypes were differentiated into three distinct groupings, with the designations within these groupings resolved to two to three potential gp60-subtypes. The current study aimed to develop a novel, reproducible, real-time PCR based multi-locus genotyping method to distinguish between C. parvum gp60-subtypes. These preliminary results support the further expansion of the multi-locus panel in order to increase the discriminatory capabilities of this novel method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K O'Leary
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
| | - Liam Blake
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Cork University Hospital, Wilton, Cork, Ireland
| | - Gerard D Corcoran
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Cork University Hospital, Wilton, Cork, Ireland
| | - Roy D Sleator
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Brigid Lucey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
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Martinson SA, Greenwood SJ, Wadowska D, Martin K. Histopathological, ultrastructural and molecular phylogenetic analysis of a novel microsporidium in a loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2018; 129:31-39. [PMID: 29916390 DOI: 10.3354/dao03234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Microsporidial spores were identified in the musculature of a loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta found dead on the shore in New Brunswick, Canada. Gastroenteritis was diagnosed on gross postmortem examination, with no gross abnormalities detected in the skeletal muscle. Histologically, the microsporidial spores were associated with inflammation and muscular necrosis and measured 1.1-1.7 × 2.2-3.4 µm. Spores were typically identified within sporophorous vesicles and, less often, in sporophorocysts and were weakly Gram positive, had punctate PAS staining, and were occasionally strongly acid-fast. Ultrastructural characteristics included 7-10 polar filament coils and other standard features of microsporidial spores. PCR for the microsporidial small subunit rRNA gene sequence was performed on DNA extracted from the muscle and small intestine, and the resulting amplicon was sequenced and queried against published microsporidial genomes. DNA sequences shared 98.2-99.8% sequence identity to Clade III of the Marinosporidia. This is the first report of a microsporidial infection contributing to the mortality of a sea turtle.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Martinson
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
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Schilliger L, Mentré V, Marschang RE, Nicolier A, Richter B. Triple infection with agamid adenovirus 1, Encephaliton cuniculi-like microsporidium and enteric coccidia in a bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). TIERARZTLICHE PRAXIS. AUSGABE K, KLEINTIERE/HEIMTIERE 2016; 44:355-358. [PMID: 27385082 DOI: 10.15654/tpk-150790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A 2-month-old juvenile central bearded dragon was presented for anorexia and cachexia. Another specimen from the same cage had died suddenly 2 weeks prior. Fecal analysis revealed a high quantity of Isospora amphiboluri and a few pinworm eggs. Other examinations were not performed and the animal died a few days later despite supportive care. A third individual from the same cage presented with anorexia and a distended cœlom and was euthanized. In this third dragon, histological examination revealed intestinal coccidiosis, basophilic intranuclear inclusions compatible with adenovirus infection, acute hepatic necrosis with intrahepatocytic and intraenteritic organisms typical of microsporidia and renal gout. A PCR confirmed the diagnosis of adenovirosis. Sequencing showed that the PCR product was 100% identical to the corresponding portion of the agamid adenovirus 1 genome. A PCR for the detection of Encephalitozoon (E.) cuniculi was positive. Partial sequencing revealed 100% identity to an E. cuniculi-like organism previously found in bearded dragons. In cases where environmental factors such as poor hygiene or stress can be excluded, the presence of opportunistic pathogens in high numbers can be due to a systemic (viral) infection with temporary immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Schilliger
- Dr. Lionel Schilliger, Clinique vétérinaire du village d'Auteuil, 75016 Paris, Frankreich, E-Mail:
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Sokolova YY, Sakaguchi K, Paulsen DB. Establishing a New Species Encephalitozoon pogonae for the Microsporidian Parasite of Inland Bearded Dragon Pogona vitticeps Ahl 1927 (Reptilia, Squamata, Agamidae). J Eukaryot Microbiol 2016; 63:524-35. [PMID: 26785360 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The microsporidium parasitizing Inland Bearded Dragons Pogona vitticeps, and developing primarily in macrophages within foci of granulomatous inflammation of different organs, is described as a new species Encephalitozoon pogonae. Establishing the new species was based on sequencing the ITS-SSUrDNA region of the ribosomal gene and consequent SSUrDNA-inferred phylogenetic analyses, as well as on comparison of pathogenesis, host specificity, and ultrastructure among Encephalitozoon species and isolates. The new species is closely related to E. lacertae and E. cuniculi. Analysis of the literature suggests that this microsporidium has been reported previously as an unidentified microsporidian species or isolate of E. cuniculi and may represent a common infection in bearded dragons. All stages of E. pogonae develop in parasitophorous vacuoles. Uninucleate spores on methanol-fixed smears measured 2.1 × 1.1 μm, range 1.7-2.6 × 0.9-1.7 μm; on ultrathin sections spores measured 0.8-1.1 × 1.8-2.2 μm. Ultrastructural study revealed 3-6 polar filament coils, a mushroom-shaped polar disk, and a polar sac embracing half of the volume occupied by the lamellar polaroplast. In activated spores, polar filament everted eccentrically. The overall morphology and intracellular development of E. pogonae were similar to other Encepahalitozoon spp. We also review the existing data on microsporidia infecting reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuliya Y Sokolova
- Microscopy Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 70803, Louisiana, USA.,Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 194064, Russia
| | - Kanako Sakaguchi
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 70803, Louisiana, USA
| | - Daniel B Paulsen
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 70803, Louisiana, USA
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Microsporidiosis in Vertebrate Companion Exotic Animals. J Fungi (Basel) 2015; 2:jof2010003. [PMID: 29376921 PMCID: PMC5753084 DOI: 10.3390/jof2010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Veterinarians caring for companion animals may encounter microsporidia in various host species, and diagnosis and treatment of these fungal organisms can be particularly challenging. Fourteen microsporidial species have been reported to infect humans and some of them are zoonotic; however, to date, direct zoonotic transmission is difficult to document versus transit through the digestive tract. In this context, summarizing information available about microsporidiosis of companion exotic animals is relevant due to the proximity of these animals to their owners. Diagnostic modalities and therapeutic challenges are reviewed by taxa. Further studies are needed to better assess risks associated with animal microsporidia for immunosuppressed owners and to improve detection and treatment of infected companion animals.
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Scheelings T, Slocombe R, Crameri S, Hair S. Encephalitozoon hellem Infection in a Captive Juvenile Freshwater Crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni). J Comp Pathol 2015; 153:352-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Šlapeta J. Cryptosporidiosis and Cryptosporidium species in animals and humans: a thirty colour rainbow? Int J Parasitol 2013; 43:957-70. [PMID: 23973380 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Parasites of the genus Cryptosporidium (Apicomplexa) cause cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals worldwide. The species names used for Cryptosporidium spp. are confusing for parasitologists and even more so for non-specialists. Here, 30 named species of the genus Cryptosporidium are reviewed and proposed as valid. Molecular and experimental evidence suggests that humans and cattle are the hosts for 14 and 13 out of 30 named species, respectively. Two, four and eight named species are considered of major, moderate and minor public health significance, respectively. There are at least nine named species that are shared between humans and cattle. The aim of this review is to outline available species information together with the most commonly used genetic markers enabling the identification of named Cryptosporidium spp. Currently, 28 of 30 named species can be identified using the complete or partial ssrRNA, serving as a retrospective 'barcode'. Currently, the ssrRNA satisfies the implicit assumption that the reference databases used for comparison are sufficiently complete and applicable across the whole genus. However, due to unreliable annotation in public DNA repositories, the reference nucleotide entries and alignment of named Cryptosporidium spp. has been compiled. Despite its known limitations, ssrRNA remains the optimal marker for species identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Šlapeta
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, McMaster Building B14, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia.
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Cryptosporidium in pet snakes from Italy: molecular characterization and zoonotic implications. Vet Parasitol 2013; 197:68-73. [PMID: 23706770 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2012] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To provide information on the occurrence of Cryptosporidium species and genotypes in captive snakes from Italy, faecal specimens from 120 snakes belonging to 13 different genera of the families Boidae, Colubridae and Pythonidae were collected. Faecal samples were taken from the ground of the terrarium when available; otherwise cloacal cotton swabs were used. No clinical signs of cryptosporidiosis were observed in any animal at the time of sampling. Samples were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium by using a direct immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and two-step nested PCR at the small subunit (SSU) rRNA locus. PCR-positive samples were genotyped by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis with the endonucleases SspI and VspI. By IFAT, 42 out of 120 snakes (35.0%) were found to be shedding Cryptosporidium oocysts. A significant higher percentage of positive ophidians were detected by using faecal specimens obtained from the terrarium (55.5%) than by cloacal cotton swabs (29.0%). SSU rRNA gene products were obtained from 25 isolates. Twenty samples tested positive to both microscopy and molecular techniques. Our data reveal a wide extent of cryptosporidial infections in snake-food animals since most of the identified isolates belonged to Cryptosporidium species, some of them with zoonotic potential, considered specific for rodents and resulting from ingestion of infected preys. The reptilian-specific species Cryptosporidium serpentis was identified in only one isolate. The common presence of reptile non-specific and, in some cases, zoonotic Cryptosporidium oocysts in snake faeces should to be taken into consideration in order to avoid the misidentification of the protozoan as well as the possible public health implications.
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Richter B, Csokai J, Graner I, Eisenberg T, Pantchev N, Eskens HU, Nedorost N. Encephalitozoonosis in two inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). J Comp Pathol 2012; 148:278-82. [PMID: 22784783 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2012.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Revised: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidiosis is reported rarely in reptiles. Sporadic multisystemic granulomatous disease of captive bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) has been associated with microsporidia showing Encephalitozoon-like morphology. Two such cases are described herein. Both animals displayed clinical signs suggestive of renal failure. Necropsy examination revealed granulomatous lesions in the liver and adrenal area in both animals, and in several other organs in one animal. The lesions were associated with intracellular protozoa consistent with microsporidia. Ultrastructural examination of the organisms revealed morphology similar to Encephalitozoon spp. Immunohistochemistry and chromogenic in-situ hybridization for Encephalitozoon cuniculi were positive in both animals. Nucleotide sequencing of the partial small subunit ribosomal RNA gene and the complete internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region revealed high similarity with published E. cuniculi sequences in both animals. However, the ITS region showed a GTTT-repeat pattern distinct from mammalian E. cuniculi strains. This may be a novel E. cuniculi strain associated with multisystemic granulomatous disease in bearded dragons.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Richter
- Institute of Pathology and Forensic Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, Vienna, Austria.
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Grosset C, Villeneuve A, Brieger A, Lair S. Cryptosporidiosis in Juvenile Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps): Effects of Treatment with Paromomycin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.5818/1529-9651-21.1.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claire Grosset
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, C.P. 5000, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 7C6 Canada
| | - Alain Villeneuve
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, C.P. 5000, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 7C6 Canada
| | - Andreas Brieger
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, C.P. 5000, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 7C6 Canada
| | - Stéphane Lair
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, C.P. 5000, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 7C6 Canada
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Biological risks associated with consumption of reptile products. Int J Food Microbiol 2009; 134:163-75. [PMID: 19679367 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2009] [Revised: 06/25/2009] [Accepted: 07/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of a wide variety of species of reptiles caught from the wild has been an important source of protein for humans world-wide for millennia. Terrapins, snakes, lizards, crocodiles and iguanas are now farmed and the consumption and trade of their meat and other edible products have recently increased in some areas of the world. Biological risks associated with the consumption of products from both farmed and wild reptile meat and eggs include infections caused by bacteria (Salmonella spp., Vibrio spp.), parasites (Spirometra, Trichinella, Gnathostoma, pentastomids), as well as intoxications by biotoxins. For crocodiles, Salmonella spp. constitute a significant public health risk due to the high intestinal carrier rate which is reflected in an equally high contamination rate in their fresh and frozen meat. There is a lack of information about the presence of Salmonella spp. in meat from other edible reptilians, though captive reptiles used as pets (lizards or turtles) are frequently carriers of these bacteria in Europe. Parasitic protozoa in reptiles represent a negligible risk for public health compared to parasitic metazoans, of which trichinellosis, pentastomiasis, gnathostomiasis and sparganosis can be acquired through consumption of contaminated crocodile, monitor lizard, turtle and snake meat, respectively. Other reptiles, although found to harbour the above parasites, have not been implicated with their transmission to humans. Freezing treatment inactivates Spirometra and Trichinella in crocodile meat, while the effectiveness of freezing of other reptilian meat is unknown. Biotoxins that accumulate in the flesh of sea turtles may cause chelonitoxism, a type of food poisoning with a high mortality rate in humans. Infections by fungi, including yeasts, and viruses widely occur in reptiles but have not been linked to a human health risk through the contamination of their meat. Currently there are no indications that natural transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) occur in reptilians. The feeding of farmed reptiles with non-processed and recycled animal products is likely to increase the occurrence of biological hazards in reptile meat. Application of GHP, GMP and HACCP procedures, respectively at farm and slaughterhouse level, is crucial for controlling the hazards.
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Graczyk TK, Sunderland D, Tamang L, Shields TM, Lucy FE, Breysse PN. Quantitative evaluation of the impact of bather density on levels of human-virulent microsporidian spores in recreational water. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:4095-9. [PMID: 17483272 PMCID: PMC1932794 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00365-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microsporidial gastroenteritis, a serious disease of immunocompromised people, can have a waterborne etiology. During summer months, samples of recreational bathing waters were tested weekly for human-virulent microsporidian spores and water quality parameters in association with high and low bather numbers during weekends and weekdays, respectively. Enterocytozoon bieneusi spores were detected in 59% of weekend (n = 27) and 30% of weekday (n = 33) samples, and Encephalitozoon intestinalis spores were concomitant in a single weekend sample; the overall prevalence was 43%. The numbers of bathers, water turbidity levels, prevalences of spore-positive samples, and concentrations of spores were significantly higher for weekend than for weekday samples; P values were <0.001, <0.04, <0.03, and <0.04, respectively. Water turbidity and the concentration of waterborne spores were significantly correlated with bather density, with P values of <0.001 and <0.01, respectively. As all water samples were collected on days deemed acceptable for bathing by fecal bacterial standards, this study reinforces the scientific doubt about the reliability of bacterial indicators in predicting human waterborne pathogens. The study provides evidence that bathing in public waters can result in exposure to potentially viable microsporidian spores and that body contact recreation in potable water can play a role in the epidemiology of microsporidiosis. The study indicates that resuspension of bottom sediments by bathers resulted in elevated turbidity values and implies that the microbial load from both sediments and bathers can act as nonpoint sources for the contamination of recreational waters with Enterocytozoon bieneusi spores. Both these mechanisms can be considered for implementation in predictive models for contamination with microsporidian spores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaddeus K Graczyk
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Graczyk TK, Kacprzak M, Neczaj E, Tamang L, Graczyk H, Lucy FE, Girouard AS. Human-virulent microsporidian spores in solid waste landfill leachate and sewage sludge, and effects of sanitization treatments on their inactivation. Parasitol Res 2007; 101:569-75. [PMID: 17364164 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-007-0515-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2007] [Accepted: 03/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Solid waste landfill leachate and sewage sludge samples were quantitatively tested for viable Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, Encephalitozoon hellem, and Encephalitozoon cuniculi spores by the multiplexed fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay. The landfill leachate samples tested positive for E. bieneusi and the sludge samples for E. bieneusi and E. intestinalis. The effects of four sanitization treatments on the inactivation of these pathogens were assessed. Depending on the variations utilized in the ultrasound disintegration, sonication reduced the load of human-virulent microsporidian spores to nondetectable levels in 19 out of 27 samples (70.4%). Quicklime stabilization was 100% effective, whereas microwave energy disintegration was 100% ineffective against the spores of E. bieneusi and E. intestinalis. Top-soil stabilization treatment gradually reduced the load of both pathogens, consistent with the serial dilution of sewage sludge with the soil substrate. This study demonstrated that sewage sludge and landfill leachate contained high numbers of viable, human-virulent microsporidian spores, and that sonication and quicklime stabilization were the most effective treatments for the sanitization of sewage sludge and solid waste landfill leachates. Multiplexed FISH assay is a reliable quantitative molecular fluorescence microscopy method for the simultaneous identification of E. bieneusi, E. intestinalis, E. hellem, and E. cuniculi spores in environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaddeus K Graczyk
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Division of Environmental Health Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Slodkowicz-Kowalska A, Graczyk TK, Tamang L, Girouard AS, Majewska AC. Asymptomatic Enterocytozoon bieneusi microsporidiosis in captive mammals. Parasitol Res 2006; 100:505-9. [PMID: 17016723 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-006-0303-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2006] [Accepted: 08/07/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Human microsporidiosis, a serious disease of immunocompetent and immunosuppressed people, can be due to zoonotic transmission of microsporidian spores. A survey utilizing chromotrope 2R stain and fluorescent in situ hybridization techniques for testing feces from 193 captive mammals demonstrated that 3 animals (1.6%) shed Encephalitozoon bieneusi spores. These include two critically endangered species (i.e., black lemurs, Eulemur macaco flavifrons; and Visayan warty pig, Sus cebifrons negrinus) and a threatened species (mongoose lemur, Eulemur mongoz). The concentration of spores varied from 2.7 x 10(5) to 5.7 x 10(5)/g of feces, and all infections were asymptomatic. The study demonstrates that E. bieneusi spores can originate from captive animals, which is of particular epidemiologic importance because the close containment of zoological gardens can facilitate pathogen spread to other animals and also to people such as zoo personnel and visitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Slodkowicz-Kowalska
- Department of Biology and Medical Parasitology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
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17
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Alves M, Xiao L, Lemos V, Zhou L, Cama V, da Cunha MB, Matos O, Antunes F. Occurrence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in mammals and reptiles at the Lisbon Zoo. Parasitol Res 2005; 97:108-12. [PMID: 15986253 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-005-1384-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2005] [Accepted: 04/05/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The presence of Cryptosporidium parasites in mammals and reptiles kept at the Lisbon Zoo was investigated. A total of 274 stool samples were collected from 100 mammals and 29 reptiles. The species and genotype of the isolates identified by light microscopy were determined by nested PCR and sequence analysis of a fragment of the small subunit rRNA gene. Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in one black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou), one Prairie bison (Bison bison bison) and in one Indian star tortoise (Geochelone elegans). The PCR and sequence analysis of these three isolates showed that those excreted by the Prairie bison were Cryptosporidium mouse genotype, those from the black wildebeest were from a new Cryptosporidium genotype and those infecting the Indian star tortoise were Cryptosporidium tortoise genotype. The present work reports a new Cryptosporidium genotype in a black wildebeest and the first finding of the Cryptosporidium mouse genotype in a ruminant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Alves
- Unidade de Protozoàrios Oportunistas/VIH e Outras Protozooses, Unidade de Parasitologia e Microbiologia Médicas (UPMM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira n 96, 1349-008, Lisboa, Portugal
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18
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Abstract
Mammalian colostrum offers passive protection to the newborn against a variety of microbial pathogens, in the form of specific immunoglobulin A, G and M antibodies. Sharing maternal immunological memory is in many cases vital for the infant, but may have disastrous consequences, such as involuntary transfer of disease and disturbance of the developing immune system. In most published studies, immune milk preparations are reported to be effective in the prevention of various gastroenteric infections, but not in the treatment of an established infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Lilius
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
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