Tumor-reducing effect of the clinically used drug clofazimine in a SCID mouse model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Clofazimine inhibits small-cell lung cancer progression by modulating the kynurenine/aryl hydrocarbon receptor axis

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is one of the highly metastatic malignancies that contributes to ∼15 % of all lung cancers. Most SCLC patients (50-60 %) develop osteolytic bone metastases, significantly affecting their quality of life. Among several factors, environmental pollutant 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) and kynurenine (Kyn), an endogenous ligand derived from tryptophan (Trp) metabolism, activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and are responsible for SCLC progression and metastasis. Further, elevated AhR expression in bone cells intensifies bone resorption, making the Kyn/AhR axis a potential target for the bone metastatic propensity of SCLC. We first assessed the expression profile of AhR in human SCLC cell lines and found a significantly increased expression compared to normal lung cells. Additionally, we also evaluated the clinical significance of AhR expression in the patient samples of SCLC along with the relevance of the same in the Rb1fl/fl; Trp53fl/fl; MycLSL/LSL (RPM) mouse model using immunohistochemistry and found the higher AhR expression in the patient samples and RPM mouse tumor tissues. Using computational simulations, we found that clofazimine (CLF) binds at the activator (Kyn) binding site by forming a stable complex with AhR. The CLF binding with AhR was favored by Van der Waals and hydrophobic forces, and the proteins retained their secondary structure. Furthermore, we found that Kyn treatment potentiates the migration and clonogenic ability of SCLC cell lines by activating Erk/Akt oncogenic signaling. Treatment with CLF reduces AhR expression, which inhibits Kyn-mediated proliferation of SCLC cells, induces apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase. Further, our examination indicates that Kyn treatment also promotes osteoblast-mediated osteoclast differentiation through RANKL. The treatment with CLF impedes RANKL expression and osteoclastogenesis, suggesting that CLF has the potential to be used as the therapeutic for SCLC patients having bone metastasis.

BioID-based intact cell interactome of the Kv1.3 potassium channel identifies a Kv1.3-STAT3-p53 cellular signaling pathway

Kv1.3 is a multifunctional potassium channel implicated in multiple pathologies, including cancer. However, how it is involved in disease progression is not fully clear. We interrogated the interactome of Kv1.3 in intact cells using BioID proximity labeling, revealing that Kv1.3 interacts with STAT3- and p53-linked pathways. To prove the relevance of Kv1.3 and of its interactome in the context of tumorigenesis, we generated stable melanoma clones, in which ablation of Kv1.3 remodeled gene expression, reduced proliferation and colony formation, yielded fourfold smaller tumors, and decreased metastasis in vivo in comparison to WT cells. Kv1.3 deletion or pharmacological inhibition of mitochondrial Kv1.3 increased mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species release, decreased STAT3 phosphorylation, stabilized the p53 tumor suppressor, promoted metabolic switch, and altered the expression of several BioID-identified Kv1.3-networking proteins in tumor tissues. Collectively, our work revealed the tumor-promoting Kv1.3-interactome landscape, thus opening the way to target Kv1.3 not only as an ion-conducting entity but also as a signaling hub.

Voltage-gated potassium channel 1.3: A promising molecular target in multiple disease therapy

Voltage-gated potassium channel 1.3 (Kv1.3) has emerged as a pivotal player in numerous biological processes and pathological conditions, sparking considerable interest as a potential therapeutic target across various diseases. In this review, we present a comprehensive examination of Kv1.3 channels, highlighting their fundamental characteristics and recent advancements in utilizing Kv1.3 inhibitors for treating autoimmune disorders, neuroinflammation, and cancers. Notably, Kv1.3 is prominently expressed in immune cells and implicated in immune responses and inflammation associated with autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammatory conditions. Moreover, its aberrant expression in certain tumors underscores its role in cancer progression. While preclinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of Kv1.3 inhibitors, their clinical translation remains pending. Molecular imaging techniques offer promising avenues for tracking Kv1.3 inhibitors and assessing their therapeutic efficacy, thereby facilitating their development and clinical application. Challenges and future directions in Kv1.3 inhibitor research are also discussed, emphasizing the significant potential of targeting Kv1.3 as a promising therapeutic strategy across a spectrum of diseases.

Clofazimine: A journey of a drug

Among different strategies to develop novel therapies, drug repositioning (aka repurposing) aims at identifying new uses of an already approved or investigational drug. This approach has the advantages of availability of the extensive pre-existing knowledge of the drug's safety, pharmacology and toxicology, manufacturing and formulation. It provides advantages to the risk-versus-rewards trade-off as compared to the costly and time-consuming de novo drug discovery process. Clofazimine, a red-colored synthetic derivative of riminophenazines initially isolated from lichens, was first synthesized in the 1950 s, and passed through several phases of repositioning in its history as a drug. Being initially developed as an anti-tuberculosis treatment, it was repurposed for the treatment of leprosy, prior to re-repositioning for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and other infections. Since 1990 s, reports on the anticancer properties of clofazimine, both in vitro and in vivo, started to appear. Among the diverse mechanisms of action proposed, the activity of clofazimine as a specific inhibitor of the oncogenic Wnt signaling pathway has recently emerged as the promising targeting mechanism of the drug against breast, colon, liver, and other forms of cancer. Seventy years after the initial discovery, clofazimine's journey as a drug finding new applications continues, serving as a colorful illustration of drug repurposing in modern pharmacology.

Non-conducting functions of potassium channels in cancer and neurological disease

Cancer and neurodegenerative disease, albeit fundamental differences, share some common pathogenic mechanisms. Accordingly, both conditions are associated with aberrant cell proliferation and migration. Here, we review the causative role played by potassium (K+) channels, a fundamental class of proteins, in cancer and neurodegenerative disease. The concept that emerges from the review of the literature is that K+ channels can promote the development and progression of cancerous and neurodegenerative pathologies by dysregulating cell proliferation and migration. K+ channels appear to control these cellular functions in ways that not necessarily depend on their conducting properties and that involve the ability to directly or indirectly engage growth and survival signaling pathways. As cancer and neurodegenerative disease represent global health concerns, identifying commonalities may help understand the molecular basis for those devastating conditions and may facilitate the design of new drugs or the repurposing of existing drugs.

Kv1.3 K+ Channel Physiology Assessed by Genetic and Pharmacological Modulation

Potassium channels are widespread over all kingdoms and play an important role in the maintenance of cellular ionic homeostasis. Kv1.3 is a voltage-gated potassium channel of the Shaker family with a wide tissue expression and a well-defined pharmacology. In recent decades, experiments mainly based on pharmacological modulation of Kv1.3 have highlighted its crucial contribution to different fundamental processes such as regulation of proliferation, apoptosis, and metabolism. These findings link channel function to various pathologies ranging from autoimmune diseases to obesity and cancer. In the present review, we briefly summarize studies employing Kv1.3 knockout animal models to confirm such roles and discuss the findings in comparison to the results obtained by pharmacological modulation of Kv1.3 in various pathophysiological settings. We also underline how these studies contributed to our understanding of channel function in vivo and propose possible future directions.

The role of polyamine metabolism in remodeling immune responses and blocking therapy within the tumor immune microenvironment

The study of metabolism provides important information for understanding the biological basis of cancer cells and the defects of cancer treatment. Disorders of polyamine metabolism is a common metabolic change in cancer. With the deepening of understanding of polyamine metabolism, including molecular functions and changes in cancer, polyamine metabolism as a new anti-cancer strategy has become the focus of attention. There are many kinds of polyamine biosynthesis inhibitors and transport inhibitors, but not many drugs have been put into clinical application. Recent evidence shows that polyamine metabolism plays essential roles in remodeling the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), particularly treatment of DFMO, an inhibitor of ODC, alters the immune cell population in the tumor microenvironment. Tumor immunosuppression is a major problem in cancer treatment. More and more studies have shown that the immunosuppressive effect of polyamines can help cancer cells to evade immune surveillance and promote tumor development and progression. Therefore, targeting polyamine metabolic pathways is expected to become a new avenue for immunotherapy for cancer.

Adapting Clofazimine for Treatment of Cutaneous Tuberculosis by Using Self-Double-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems

Although chemotherapeutic treatment regimens are currently available, and considerable effort has been lavished on the development of new drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB), the disease remains deeply intractable and widespread. This is due not only to the nature of the life cycle and extraordinarily disseminated habitat of the causative pathogen, principally Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), in humans and the multi-drug resistance of Mtb to current drugs, but especially also to the difficulty of enabling universal treatment of individuals, immunocompromised or otherwise, in widely differing socio-economic environments. For the purpose of globally eliminating TB by 2035, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the "End-TB" initiative by employing interventions focusing on high impact, integrated and patient-centered approaches, such as individualized therapy. However, the extraordinary shortfall in stipulated aims, for example in actual treatment and in TB preventative treatments during the period 2018-2022, latterly and greatly exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, means that even greater pressure is now placed on enhancing our scientific understanding of the disease, repurposing or repositioning old drugs and developing new drugs as well as evolving innovative treatment methods. In the specific context of multidrug resistant Mtb, it is furthermore noted that the incidence of extra-pulmonary TB (EPTB) has significantly increased. This review focusses on the potential of utilizing self-double-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SDEDDSs) as topical drug delivery systems for the dermal route of administration to aid in treatment of cutaneous TB (CTB) and other mycobacterial infections as a prelude to evaluating related systems for more effective treatment of CTB and other mycobacterial infections at large. As a starting point, we consider here the possibility of adapting the highly lipophilic riminophenazine clofazimine, with its potential for treatment of multi-drug resistant TB, for this purpose. Additionally, recently reported synergism achieved by adding clofazimine to first-line TB regimens signifies the need to consider clofazimine. Thus, the biological effects and pharmacology of clofazimine are reviewed. The potential of plant-based oils acting as emulsifiers, skin penetration enhancers as well as these materials behaving as anti-microbial components for transporting the incorporated drug are also discussed.

Inhibition of a Mitochondrial Potassium Channel in Combination with Gemcitabine and Abraxane Drastically Reduces Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma in an Immunocompetent Orthotopic Murine Model

Simple Summary

Treatment of pancreas ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains challenging due to the late stage of presentation, limited efficacy of cytotoxic chemotherapies, and aggressive tumor biology. Novel therapeutic targets are desperately needed. The voltage-gated potassium channel, Kv1.3, is one such unique target. It has been extensively studied in many cancers but less is known in pancreas cancer. In this study, we evaluated the tissue expression of Kv1.3 in resected PDAC and tumor inhibition using novel Kv1.3 inhibitors developed by our group (PCARBTP and PAPTP) with cytotoxic chemotherapies. We found that Kv1.3 is expressed in early stage, non-metastatic, resectable pancreas cancer specimens. Treatment with novel mitochondrial Kv1.3 inhibitors resulted in 95% reduced tumor growth when combined with cytotoxic chemotherapies. This near complete eradication of tumors using this treatment strategy shows that Kv1.3 represents an innovative therapeutic target for pancreas cancer therapy.

Abstract

Pancreas ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one the most aggressive cancers and associated with very high mortality, requiring the development of novel treatments. The mitochondrial voltage-gated potassium channel, Kv1.3 is emerging as an attractive oncologic target but its function in PDAC is unknown. Here, we evaluated the tissue expression of Kv1.3 in resected PDAC from 55 patients using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and show that all tumors expressed Kv1.3 with 60% of tumor specimens having high Kv1.3 expression. In Pan02 cells, the recently developed mitochondria-targeted Kv1.3 inhibitors PCARBTP and PAPTP strongly reduced cell survival in vitro. In an orthotopic pancreas tumor model (Pan02 cells injected into C57BL/6 mice) in immune-competent mice, injection of PAPTP or PCARBTP resulted in tumor reductions of 87% and 70%, respectively. When combined with clinically used Gemcitabine plus Abraxane (albumin-bound paclitaxel), reduction reached 95% and 80% without resultant organ toxicity. Drug-mediated tumor cell death occurred through the p38-MAPK pathway, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and oxidative stress. Resistant Pan02 clones to PCARBTP escaped cell death through upregulation of the antioxidant system. In contrast, tumor cells did not develop resistance to PAPTP. Our data show that Kv1.3 is highly expressed in resected human PDAC and the use of novel mitochondrial Kv1.3 inhibitors combined with cytotoxic chemotherapies might be a novel, effective treatment for PDAC.

Design of New Potent and Selective Thiophene-Based KV1.3 Inhibitors and Their Potential for Anticancer Activity

Simple Summary

In this article, we describe the discovery of a new class of potent and selective thiophene-based inhibitors of the voltage-gated potassium channel K_V1.3 and their potential to induce apoptosis and inhibit proliferation. The K_V1.3 channel has only recently emerged as a molecular target in cancer therapy. The most potent K_V1.3 inhibitor 44 had an IC₅₀ K_V1.3 value of 470 nM (oocytes) and 950 nM (Ltk⁻ cells) and appropriate selectivity for other K_V channels. New K_V1.3 inhibitors significantly inhibited proliferation of Panc-1 cells and K_V1.3 inhibitor 4 induced significant apoptosis in tumor spheroids of Colo-357 cells.

Abstract

The voltage-gated potassium channel K_V1.3 has been recognized as a tumor marker and represents a promising new target for the discovery of new anticancer drugs. We designed a novel structural class of K_V1.3 inhibitors through structural optimization of benzamide-based hit compounds and structure-activity relationship studies. The potency and selectivity of the new K_V1.3 inhibitors were investigated using whole-cell patch- and voltage-clamp experiments. 2D and 3D cell models were used to determine antiproliferative activity. Structural optimization resulted in the most potent and selective K_V1.3 inhibitor 44 in the series with an IC₅₀ value of 470 nM in oocytes and 950 nM in Ltk⁻ cells. K_V1.3 inhibitor 4 induced significant apoptosis in Colo-357 spheroids, while 14, 37, 43, and 44 significantly inhibited Panc-1 proliferation.

The acidic tumour microenvironment: Manipulating the immune response to elicit escape

The success of cancer treatment relies on the composition of the tumour microenvironment which is comprised of tumour cells, blood vessels, stromal cells, immune cells, and extracellular matrix components. Barriers to effective cancer treatment need to be overcome, and the acidic microenvironment of the tumour provides a key target for treatment. This review intends to provide an overview of the effects that low extracellular pH has on components of the tumour microenvironment and how they contribute to immune escape. Further, potential therapeutic targets will be discussed.

Alternative Targets for Modulators of Mitochondrial Potassium Channels

Mitochondrial potassium channels control potassium influx into the mitochondrial matrix and thus regulate mitochondrial membrane potential, volume, respiration, and synthesis of reactive oxygen species (ROS). It has been found that pharmacological activation of mitochondrial potassium channels during ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury activates cytoprotective mechanisms resulting in increased cell survival. In cancer cells, the inhibition of these channels leads to increased cell death. Therefore, mitochondrial potassium channels are intriguing targets for the development of new pharmacological strategies. In most cases, however, the substances that modulate the mitochondrial potassium channels have a few alternative targets in the cell. This may result in unexpected or unwanted effects induced by these compounds. In our review, we briefly present the various classes of mitochondrial potassium (mitoK) channels and describe the chemical compounds that modulate their activity. We also describe examples of the multidirectional activity of the activators and inhibitors of mitochondrial potassium channels.

Roles of voltage‑gated potassium channels in the maintenance of pancreatic cancer stem cells

The targeting of membrane proteins that are activated in cancer stem cells (CSCs) represents one of the key recent strategies in cancer therapy. The present study analyzed ion channel expression profiles and functions in pancreatic CSCs (PCSCs). Cells strongly expressing aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family member A1 (ALDH1A1) were isolated from the human pancreatic PK59 cell line using fluorescence-activated cell sorting, and PCSCs were identified based on tumorsphere formation. Microarray analysis was performed to investigate the gene expression profiles in PCSCs. ALDH1A1 messenger RNA levels were higher in PCSCs compared with non-PCSCs. PCSCs were resistant to 5-fluorouracil and capable of redifferentiation. The results of the microarray analysis revealed that gene expression related to ion channels, including voltage-gated potassium channels (Kv), was upregulated in PCSCs compared with non-PCSCs. 4-Aminopyridine (4-AP), a potent Kv inhibitor, exhibited greater cytotoxicity in PCSCs compared with non-PCSCs. In a xenograft model in nude mice, tumor volumes were significantly lower in mice inoculated with PK59 cells pre-treated with 4-AP compared with those in mice injected with non-treated cells. The present results identified a role of Kv in the persistence of PCSCs and suggested that the Kv inhibitor 4-AP may have potential as a therapeutic agent for pancreatic carcinoma.

Mitochondrial Metal Ion Transport in Cell Metabolism and Disease

Mitochondria are vital to life and provide biological energy for other organelles and cell physiological processes. On the mitochondrial double layer membrane, there are a variety of channels and transporters to transport different metal ions, such as Ca2+, K+, Na+, Mg2+, Zn2+ and Fe2+/Fe3+. Emerging evidence in recent years has shown that the metal ion transport is essential for mitochondrial function and cellular metabolism, including oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), ATP production, mitochondrial integrity, mitochondrial volume, enzyme activity, signal transduction, proliferation and apoptosis. The homeostasis of mitochondrial metal ions plays an important role in maintaining mitochondria and cell functions and regulating multiple diseases. In particular, channels and transporters for transporting mitochondrial metal ions are very critical, which can be used as potential targets to treat neurodegeneration, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes and other metabolic diseases. This review summarizes the current research on several types of mitochondrial metal ion channels/transporters and their functions in cell metabolism and diseases, providing strong evidence and therapeutic strategies for further insights into related diseases.

Discovery of KV 1.3 ion channel inhibitors: Medicinal chemistry approaches and challenges

The KV 1.3 voltage-gated potassium ion channel is involved in many physiological processes both at the plasma membrane and in the mitochondria, chiefly in the immune and nervous systems. Therapeutic targeting KV 1.3 with specific peptides and small molecule inhibitors shows great potential for treating cancers and autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, type I diabetes mellitus, psoriasis, contact dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and myasthenia gravis. However, no KV 1.3-targeted compounds have been approved for therapeutic use to date. This review focuses on the presentation of approaches for discovering new KV 1.3 peptide and small-molecule inhibitors, and strategies to improve the selectivity of active compounds toward KV 1.3. Selectivity of dalatazide (ShK-186), a synthetic derivate of the sea anemone toxin ShK, was achieved by chemical modification and has successfully reached clinical trials as a potential therapeutic for treating autoimmune diseases. Other peptides and small-molecule inhibitors are critically evaluated for their lead-like characteristics and potential for progression into clinical development. Some small-molecule inhibitors with well-defined structure-activity relationships have been optimized for selective delivery to mitochondria, and these offer therapeutic potential for the treatment of cancers. This overview of KV 1.3 inhibitors and methodologies is designed to provide a good starting point for drug discovery to identify novel effective KV 1.3 modulators against this target in the future.

An understanding of mitochondria and its role in targeting nanocarriers for diagnosis and treatment of cancer

Nanotechnology has changed the entire paradigm of drug targeting and has shown tremendous potential in the area of cancer therapy due to its specificity. In cancer, several targets have been explored which could be utilized for the better treatment of disease. Mitochondria, the so-called powerhouse of cell, portrays significant role in the survival and death of cells, and has emerged as potential target for cancer therapy. Direct targeting and nanotechnology based approaches can be tailor-made to target mitochondria and thus improve the survival rate of patients suffering from cancer. With this backdrop, in present review, we have reemphasized the role of mitochondria in cancer progression and inhibition, highlighting the different targets that can be explored for targeting of disease. Moreover, we have also summarized different nanoparticulate systems that have been used for treatment of cancer via mitochondrial targeting.

Targeting mitochondrial ion channels for cancer therapy

Pharmacological targeting of mitochondrial ion channels is emerging as a promising approach to eliminate cancer cells; as most of these channels are differentially expressed and/or regulated in cancer cells in comparison to healthy ones, this strategy may selectively eliminate the former. Perturbation of ion fluxes across the outer and inner membranes is linked to alterations of redox state, membrane potential and bioenergetic efficiency. This leads to indirect modulation of oxidative phosphorylation, which is/may be fundamental for both cancer and cancer stem cell survival. Furthermore, given the crucial contribution of mitochondria to intrinsic apoptosis, modulation of their ion channels leading to cytochrome c release may be of great advantage in case of resistance to drugs triggering apoptotic events upstream of the mitochondrial phase. In the present review, we give an overview of the known mitochondrial ion channels and of their modulators capable of killing cancer cells. In addition, we discuss state-of-the-art strategies using mitochondriotropic drugs or peptide-based approaches allowing a more efficient and selective targeting of mitochondrial ion channel-linked events.

The Interplay between Dysregulated Ion Transport and Mitochondrial Architecture as a Dangerous Liaison in Cancer

Transport of ions and nutrients is a core mitochondrial function, without which there would be no mitochondrial metabolism and ATP production. Both ion homeostasis and mitochondrial phenotype undergo pervasive changes during cancer development, and both play key roles in driving the malignancy. However, the link between these events has been largely ignored. This review comprehensively summarizes and critically discusses the role of the reciprocal relationship between ion transport and mitochondria in crucial cellular functions, including metabolism, signaling, and cell fate decisions. We focus on Ca²⁺, H⁺, and K⁺, which play essential and highly interconnected roles in mitochondrial function and are profoundly dysregulated in cancer. We describe the transport and roles of these ions in normal mitochondria, summarize the changes occurring during cancer development, and discuss how they might impact tumorigenesis.

From Channels to Canonical Wnt Signaling: A Pathological Perspective

Wnt signaling is an important pathway mainly active during embryonic development and controlling cell proliferation. This regulatory pathway is aberrantly activated in several human diseases. Ion channels are known modulators of several important cellular functions ranging from the tuning of the membrane potential to modulation of intracellular pathways, in particular the influence of ion channels in Wnt signaling regulation has been widely investigated. This review will discuss the known links between ion channels and canonical Wnt signaling, focusing on their possible roles in human metabolic diseases, neurological disorders, and cancer.

Mitochondrial K+ channels and their implications for disease mechanisms

The field of mitochondrial ion channels underwent a rapid development during the last decade, thanks to the molecular identification of some of the nuclear-encoded organelle channels and to advances in strategies allowing specific pharmacological targeting of these proteins. Thereby, genetic tools and specific drugs aided definition of the relevance of several mitochondrial channels both in physiological as well as pathological conditions. Unfortunately, in the case of mitochondrial K⁺ channels, efforts of genetic manipulation provided only limited results, due to their dual localization to mitochondria and to plasma membrane in most cases. Although the impact of mitochondrial K⁺ channels on human diseases is still far from being genuinely understood, pre-clinical data strongly argue for their substantial role in the context of several pathologies, including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases as well as cancer. Importantly, these channels are druggable targets, and their in-depth investigation could thus pave the way to the development of innovative small molecules with huge therapeutic potential. In the present review we summarize the available experimental evidence that mechanistically link mitochondrial potassium channels to the above pathologies and underline the possibility of exploiting them for therapy.

Unbiased Phenotype-Based Screen Identifies Therapeutic Agents Selective for Metastatic Prostate Cancer

In American men, prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death. Dissemination of prostate cancer cells to distant organs significantly worsens patients' prognosis, and currently there are no effective treatment options that can cure advanced-stage prostate cancer. In an effort to identify compounds selective for metastatic prostate cancer cells over benign prostate cancer cells or normal prostate epithelial cells, we applied a phenotype-based in vitro drug screening method utilizing multiple prostate cancer cell lines to test 1,120 different compounds from a commercial drug library. Top drug candidates were then examined in multiple mouse xenograft models including subcutaneous tumor growth, experimental lung metastasis, and experimental bone metastasis assays. A subset of compounds including fenbendazole, fluspirilene, clofazimine, niclosamide, and suloctidil showed preferential cytotoxicity and apoptosis towards metastatic prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. The bioavailability of the most discerning agents, especially fenbendazole and albendazole, was improved by formulating as micelles or nanoparticles. The enhanced forms of fenbendazole and albendazole significantly prolonged survival in mice bearing metastases, and albendazole-treated mice displayed significantly longer median survival times than paclitaxel-treated mice. Importantly, these drugs effectively targeted taxane-resistant tumors and bone metastases - two common clinical conditions in patients with aggressive prostate cancer. In summary, we find that metastatic prostate tumor cells differ from benign prostate tumor cells in their sensitivity to certain drug classes. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that albendazole, an anthelmintic medication, may represent a potential adjuvant or neoadjuvant to standard therapy in the treatment of disseminated prostate cancer.

Ion Channels Orchestrate Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Progression and Therapy

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is a devastating disease with a dismal prognosis. Therapeutic interventions are largely ineffective. A better understanding of the pathophysiology is required. Ion channels contribute substantially to the "hallmarks of cancer." Their expression is dysregulated in cancer, and they are "misused" to drive cancer progression, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Ion channels are located in the cell membrane at the interface between the intracellular and extracellular space. They sense and modify the tumor microenvironment which in itself is a driver of PDAC aggressiveness. Ion channels detect, for example, locally altered proton and electrolyte concentrations or mechanical stimuli and transduce signals triggered by these microenvironmental cues through association with intracellular signaling cascades. While these concepts have been firmly established for other cancers, evidence has emerged only recently that ion channels are drivers of PDAC aggressiveness. Particularly, they appear to contribute to two of the characteristic PDAC features: the massive fibrosis of the tumor stroma (desmoplasia) and the efficient immune evasion. Our critical review of the literature clearly shows that there is still a remarkable lack of knowledge with respect to the contribution of ion channels to these two typical PDAC properties. Yet, we can draw parallels from ion channel research in other fibrotic and inflammatory diseases. Evidence is accumulating that pancreatic stellate cells express the same "profibrotic" ion channels. Similarly, it is at least in part known which major ion channels are expressed in those innate and adaptive immune cells that populate the PDAC microenvironment. We explore potential therapeutic avenues derived thereof. Since drugs targeting PDAC-relevant ion channels are already in clinical use, we propose to repurpose those in PDAC. The quest for ion channel targets is both motivated and complicated by the fact that some of the relevant channels, for example, KCa3.1, are functionally expressed in the cancer, stroma, and immune cells. Only in vivo studies will reveal which arm of the balance we should put our weights on when developing channel-targeting PDAC therapies. The time is up to explore the efficacy of ion channel targeting in (transgenic) murine PDAC models before launching clinical trials with repurposed drugs.

Beyond TNBC: Repositioning of Clofazimine Against a Broad Range of Wnt-Dependent Cancers

Wnt signaling plays key roles in oncogenic transformation and progression in a number of cancer types, including tumors in the breast, colon, ovaries, liver, and other tissues. Despite this importance, no therapy targeting the Wnt pathway currently exists. We have previously shown that the anti-mycobacterium drug clofazimine is a specific inhibitor of Wnt signaling and cell proliferation in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Here, we expand the applicability of clofazimine to a set of other Wnt-dependent cancers. Using a panel of cell lines from hepatocellular carcinoma, glioblastoma, as well as colorectal and ovarian cancer, we show that the efficacy of clofazimine against a given cancer type correlates with the basal levels of Wnt pathway activation and the ability of the drug to inhibit Wnt signaling in it, being further influenced by the cancer mutational spectrum. Our study establishes the basis for patient stratification in the future clinical trials of clofazimine and may ultimately contribute to the establishment of the Wnt pathway-targeted therapy against a diverse set of cancer types relying on the oncogenic Wnt signaling.

Ion Channel Signature in Healthy Pancreas and Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the fourth most common cause of cancer-related deaths in United States and Europe. It is predicted that PDAC will become the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths during the next decades. The development of PDAC is not well understood, however, studies have shown that dysregulated exocrine pancreatic fluid secretion can contribute to pathologies of exocrine pancreas, including PDAC. The major roles of healthy exocrine pancreatic tissue are secretion of enzymes and bicarbonate rich fluid, where ion channels participate to fine-tune these biological processes. It is well known that ion channels located in the plasma membrane regulate multiple cellular functions and are involved in the communication between extracellular events and intracellular signaling pathways and can function as signal transducers themselves. Hereby, they contribute to maintain resting membrane potential, electrical signaling in excitable cells, and ion homeostasis. Despite their contribution to basic cellular processes, ion channels are also involved in the malignant transformation from a normal to a malignant phenotype. Aberrant expression and activity of ion channels have an impact on essentially all hallmarks of cancer defined as; uncontrolled proliferation, evasion of apoptosis, sustained angiogenesis and promotion of invasion and migration. Research indicates that certain ion channels are involved in the aberrant tumor growth and metastatic processes of PDAC. The purpose of this review is to summarize the important expression, localization, and function of ion channels in normal exocrine pancreatic tissue and how they are involved in PDAC progression and development. As ion channels are suggested to be potential targets of treatment they are furthermore suggested to be biomarkers of different cancers. Therefore, we describe the importance of ion channels in PDAC as markers of diagnosis and clinical factors.

Transportome Malfunctions and the Hallmarks of Pancreatic Cancer

Ion channels and transporters (ICT) play important roles in almost all basic cellular processes. During last decades, abundant evidences have been provided that ICT (e.g., Ca²⁺ and K⁺ channels) are notable for regulating physiological pancreatic duct cellular function and deregulation of ICT is closely associated with the widely accepted hallmarks of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) such as proliferation, apoptosis resistance, invasion, and metastasis. Hence this review focuses on the role of ICT malfunctions in context with the hallmarks of PDAC. After briefly introducing epidemiology and history of molecular oncology of PDAC and summarizing the recent studies on molecular classification systems, we focus then on the exocrine pancreas as a very active secretory gland which considerably impacts the changes in the ion transport system (the transportome) upon malignant transformation. We highlight multiplicity of ICT members (H⁺ transporters, Ca²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺ and Cl^- channels) and their functional impact in PDAC. We also present some selective therapeutic options to interfere with transportome functions and thereby with key mechanisms of malignant progression. This will hopefully contribute to a better clinical outcome based on improved therapeutic strategies for this still extremely deadly disease.

Subcellular Characterization of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Biosynthesis in Metastatic Melanoma by Using Organelle-Specific Biosensors

Aim: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) plays central roles in a wide array of normal and pathological conditions. Inhibition of NAD⁺ biosynthesis can be exploited therapeutically in cancer, including melanoma. To obtain quantitation of NAD⁺ levels in live cells and to address the issue of the compartmentalization of NAD⁺ biosynthesis, we exploited a recently described genetically encoded NAD⁺ biosensor (LigA-circularly permutated Venus), which was targeted to the cytosol, mitochondria, and nuclei of BRAF-V600E A375 melanoma cells, a model of metastatic melanoma (MM). Results: FK866, a specific inhibitor of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), the main NAD⁺-producing enzyme in MM cells, was used to monitor NAD⁺ depletion kinetics at the subcellular level in biosensor-transduced A375 cells. In addition, we treated FK866-blocked A375 cells with NAD⁺ precursors, including nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, nicotinamide riboside, and quinolinic acid, highlighting an organelle-specific capacity of each substrate to rescue from NAMPT block. Expression of NAD⁺ biosynthetic enzymes was then biochemically studied in isolated organelles, revealing the presence of NAMPT in all three cellular compartments, whereas nicotinate phosphoribosyltransferase was predominantly cytosolic and mitochondrial, and nicotinamide riboside kinase mitochondrial and nuclear. In keeping with biosensor data, quinolinate phosphoribosyltransferase was expressed at extremely low levels. Innovation and Conclusions: Throughout this work, we validated the use of genetically encoded NAD⁺ biosensors to characterize subcellular distribution of NAD⁺ production routes in MM. The chance of real-time monitoring of NAD⁺ fluctuations after chemical perturbations, together with a deeper comprehension of the cofactor biosynthesis compartmentalization, strengthens the foundation for a targeted strategy of NAD⁺ pool manipulation in cancer and metabolic diseases.

Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel Kv1.3 as a Target in Therapy of Cancer

Voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.3 is an integral membrane protein, which is selectively permeable for potassium ions and is activated upon a change of membrane potential. Channel activation enables transportation of potassium ions down their electrochemical gradient. Kv1.3 channel is expressed in many cell types, both normal and cancer. Activity of the channel plays an important role in cell proliferation and apoptosis. Inhibition of Kv1.3 channel may be beneficial in therapy of several diseases including some cancer disorders. This review focuses on Kv1.3 channel as a new potentially attractive molecular target in cancer therapy. In the first part, changes in the channel expression in selected cancer disorders are described. Then, the role of the channel activity in cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis is presented. Finally, it is shown that some low molecular weight organic inhibitors of the channel including selected biologically active plant-derived polycyclic compounds may selectively induce apoptosis of Kv1.3-expressing cancer cells while sparing normal cells and healthy organs. These compounds may be promising candidates for putative application in therapy of some cancer disorders, such as melanoma, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), or B-type chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL).

Targeting the Mitochondrial Potassium Channel Kv1.3 to Kill Cancer Cells: Drugs, Strategies, and New Perspectives

Cancer is the consequence of aberrations in cell growth or cell death. In this scenario, mitochondria and ion channels play a critical role in regard to cell proliferation, malignant angiogenesis, migration, and metastasis. In this review, we focus on Kv1.3 and specifically on mitoKv1.3, which showed an aberrant expression in cancer cells compared with healthy tissues and which is involved in the apoptotic pathway. In recent years, mitoKv1.3 has become an oncological target since its pharmacological modulation has been demonstrated to reduce tumor growth and progression both in vitro and in vivo using preclinical mouse models of different types of tumors.

Contribution of Mitochondrial Ion Channels to Chemo-Resistance in Cancer Cells

Mitochondrial ion channels are emerging oncological targets, as modulation of these ion-transporting proteins may impact on mitochondrial membrane potential, efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation and reactive oxygen production. In turn, these factors affect the release of cytochrome c, which is the point of no return during mitochondrial apoptosis. Many of the currently used chemotherapeutics induce programmed cell death causing damage to DNA and subsequent activation of p53-dependent pathways that finally leads to cytochrome c release from the mitochondrial inter-membrane space. The view is emerging, as summarized in the present review, that ion channels located in this organelle may account in several cases for the resistance that cancer cells can develop against classical chemotherapeutics, by preventing drug-induced apoptosis. Thus, pharmacological modulation of these channel activities might be beneficial to fight chemo-resistance of different types of cancer cells.

Implication of Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels in Neoplastic Cell Proliferation

Voltage-gated potassium channels (Kv) are the largest group of ion channels. Kv are involved in controlling the resting potential and action potential duration in the heart and brain. Additionally, these proteins participate in cell cycle progression as well as in several other important features in mammalian cell physiology, such as activation, differentiation, apoptosis, and cell volume control. Therefore, Kv remarkably participate in the cell function by balancing responses. The implication of Kv in physiological and pathophysiological cell growth is the subject of study, as Kv are proposed as therapeutic targets for tumor regression. Though it is widely accepted that Kv channels control proliferation by allowing cell cycle progression, their role is controversial. Kv expression is altered in many cancers, and their participation, as well as their use as tumor markers, is worthy of effort. There is an ever-growing list of Kv that remodel during tumorigenesis. This review focuses on the actual knowledge of Kv channel expression and their relationship with neoplastic proliferation. In this work, we provide an update of what is currently known about these proteins, thereby paving the way for a more precise understanding of the participation of Kv during cancer development.

Towards the first targeted therapy for triple-negative breast cancer: Repositioning of clofazimine as a chemotherapy-compatible selective Wnt pathway inhibitor

Wnt signaling is overactivated in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and several other cancers, and its suppression emerges as an effective anticancer treatment. However, no drugs targeting the Wnt pathway exist on the market nor in advanced clinical trials. Here we provide a comprehensive body of preclinical evidence that an anti-leprotic drug clofazimine is effective against TNBC. Clofazimine specifically inhibits canonical Wnt signaling in a panel of TNBC cells in vitro. In several mouse xenograft models of TNBC, clofazimine efficiently suppresses tumor growth, correlating with in vivo inhibition of the Wnt pathway in the tumors. Clofazimine is well compatible with doxorubicin, exerting additive effects on tumor growth suppression, producing no adverse effects. Its excellent and well-characterized pharmacokinetics profile, lack of serious adverse effects at moderate (yet therapeutically effective) doses, its combinability with cytotoxic therapeutics, and the novel mechanistic mode of action make clofazimine a prime candidate for the repositioning clinical trials. Our work may bring forward the anti-Wnt targeted therapy, desperately needed for thousands of patients currently lacking targeted treatments.

Pharmacological modulation of mitochondrial ion channels

The field of mitochondrial ion channels has undergone a rapid development during the last three decades, due to the molecular identification of some of the channels residing in the outer and inner membranes. Relevant information about the function of these channels in physiological and pathological settings was gained thanks to genetic models for a few, mitochondria-specific channels. However, many ion channels have multiple localizations within the cell, hampering a clear-cut determination of their function by pharmacological means. The present review summarizes our current knowledge about the ins and outs of mitochondrial ion channels, with special focus on the channels that have received much attention in recent years, namely, the voltage-dependent anion channels, the permeability transition pore (also called mitochondrial megachannel), the mitochondrial calcium uniporter and some of the inner membrane-located potassium channels. In addition, possible strategies to overcome the difficulties of specifically targeting mitochondrial channels versus their counterparts active in other membranes are discussed, as well as the possibilities of modulating channel function by small peptides that compete for binding with protein interacting partners. Altogether, these promising tools along with large-scale chemical screenings set up to identify new, specific channel modulators will hopefully allow us to pinpoint the actual function of most mitochondrial ion channels in the near future and to pharmacologically affect important pathologies in which they are involved, such as neurodegeneration, ischaemic damage and cancer. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Mitochondrial Pharmacology: Featured Mechanisms and Approaches for Therapy Translation. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.22/issuetoc.

Inhibition of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor/polyamine biosynthesis axis suppresses multiple myeloma

Polyamine inhibition for cancer therapy is, conceptually, an attractive approach but has yet to meet success in the clinical setting. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is the central transcriptional regulator of the xenobiotic response. Our study revealed that AHR also positively regulates intracellular polyamine production via direct transcriptional activation of 2 genes, ODC1 and AZIN1, which are involved in polyamine biosynthesis and control, respectively. In patients with multiple myeloma (MM), AHR levels were inversely correlated with survival, suggesting that AHR inhibition may be beneficial for the treatment of this disease. We identified clofazimine (CLF), an FDA-approved anti-leprosy drug, as a potent AHR antagonist and a suppressor of polyamine biosynthesis. Experiments in a transgenic model of MM (Vk*Myc mice) and in immunocompromised mice bearing MM cell xenografts revealed high efficacy of CLF comparable to that of bortezomib, a first-in-class proteasome inhibitor used for the treatment of MM. This study identifies a previously unrecognized regulatory axis between AHR and polyamine metabolism and reveals CLF as an inhibitor of AHR and a potentially clinically relevant anti-MM agent.

The Influence of 6-Prenylnaringenin and Selected Non-prenylated Flavonoids on the Activity of Kv1.3 Channels in Human Jurkat T Cells

The influence of a prenylated flavonoid-6-prenylnaringenin (6-PR) and selected non-prenylated flavonoids: acacetin, chrysin, baicalein, wogonin, and luteolin on the activity of voltage-gated potassium channels Kv1.3 was investigated in human leukemic Jurkat T cells. Electrophysiological measurements were accompanied by studies on the cytotoxic effect of the examined compounds on Jurkat T cells. Electrophysiological studies were performed using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Cell viability was determined using the MTT assay. 6-PR inhibited Kv1.3 channels in Jurkat T cells in a concentration-dependent manner. The estimated value of the half-blocking concentration (EC₅₀) was about 5.76 µM. Among non-prenylated flavonoids, acacetin and chrysin inhibited Kv1.3 channels in Jurkat T cells when applied at the concentration of 30 µM, whereas baicalein, wogonin, and luteolin were ineffective at this concentration. The inhibitory effects of acacetin and chrysin on Kv1.3 channels were significantly less potent than the inhibition caused by 6-PR. All tested compounds inhibited growth of Jurkat T cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Wogonin and chrysin were the most cytotoxic flavonoids tested, whereas baicalein and 6-PR were the least cytotoxic compounds. In accordance to our hypothesis the prenylated flavonoid (6-PR) was much more effective inhibitor of Kv1.3 channels than non-prenylated compounds selected for this study. The inhibition of Kv1.3 channels by 6-PR, acacetin, and chrysin was not related to cytotoxicity of these compounds. The channels' inhibition might be involved in anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of 6-PR, acacetin and chrysin observed in cancer cell lines expressing these channels.

Targeting Mitochondrial Ion Channels to Fight Cancer

In recent years, several experimental evidences have underlined a new role of ion channels in cancer development and progression. In particular, mitochondrial ion channels are arising as new oncological targets, since it has been proved that most of them show an altered expression during tumor development and the pharmacological targeting of some of them have been demonstrated to be able to modulate cancer growth and progression, both in vitro as well as in vivo in pre-clinical mouse models. In this scenario, pharmacology of mitochondrial ion channels would be in the near future a new frontier for the treatment of tumors. In this review, we discuss the new advances in the field, by focusing our attention on the improvements in new drug developments to target mitochondrial ion channels.

Novel Mitochondria-Targeted Furocoumarin Derivatives as Possible Anti-Cancer Agents

Targeting small molecules to appropriate subcellular compartments is a way to increase their selectivity and effectiveness while minimizing side effects. This can be accomplished either by stably incorporating specific "homing" properties into the structure of the active principle, or by attaching to it a targeting moiety via a labile linker, i.e., by producing a "targeting pro-drug." Mitochondria are a recognized therapeutic target in oncology, and blocking the population of the potassium channel Kv1.3 residing in the inner mitochondrial membrane (mtKv1.3) has been shown to cause apoptosis of cancerous cells expressing it. These concepts have led us to devise novel, mitochondria-targeted, membrane-permeant drug candidates containing the furocoumarin (psoralenic) ring system and the triphenylphosphonium (TPP) lipophilic cation. The strategy has proven effective in various cancer models, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, melanoma, and glioblastoma, stimulating us to devise further novel molecules to extend and diversify the range of available drugs of this type. New compounds were synthesized and tested in vitro; one of them-a prodrug in which the coumarinic moiety and the TPP group are linked by a bridge comprising a labile carbonate bond system-proved quite effective in in vitro cytotoxicity assays. Selective death induction is attributed to inhibition of mtKv1.3. This results in oxidative stress, which is fatal for the already-stressed malignant cells. This compound may thus be a candidate drug for the mtKv1.3-targeting therapeutic approach.

Regulation of Proliferation by a Mitochondrial Potassium Channel in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Cells

Previous results link the mitochondrial potassium channel Kv1.3 (mitoKv1.3) to the regulation of apoptosis. By synthesizing new, mitochondria-targeted derivatives (PAPTP and PCARBTP) of PAP-1, a specific membrane-permeant Kv1.3 inhibitor, we have recently provided evidence that both drugs acting on mitoKv1.3 are able to induce apoptosis and reduce tumor growth in vivo without affecting healthy tissues and cells. In the present article, by exploiting these new drugs, we addressed the question whether mitoKv1.3 contributes to the regulation of cell proliferation as well. When used at low concentrations, which do not compromise cell survival, both drugs slightly increased the percentage of cells in S phase while decreased the population at G0/G1 stage of cells from two different pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma lines. Our data suggest that the observed modulation is related to ROS levels within the cells, opening the way to link mitochondrial ion channel function to downstream, ROS-related signaling events that might be important for cell cycle progression.

Identification of novel chemotherapeutic strategies for metastatic uveal melanoma

Melanoma of the uveal tract accounts for approximately 5% of all melanomas and represents the most common primary intraocular malignancy. Despite improvements in diagnosis and more effective local therapies for primary cancer, the rate of metastatic death has not changed in the past forty years. In the present study, we made use of bioinformatics to analyze the data obtained from three public available microarray datasets on uveal melanoma in an attempt to identify novel putative chemotherapeutic options for the liver metastatic disease. We have first carried out a meta-analysis of publicly available whole-genome datasets, that included data from 132 patients, comparing metastatic vs. non metastatic uveal melanomas, in order to identify the most relevant genes characterizing the spreading of tumor to the liver. Subsequently, the L1000CDS² web-based utility was used to predict small molecules and drugs targeting the metastatic uveal melanoma gene signature. The most promising drugs were found to be Cinnarizine, an anti-histaminic drug used for motion sickness, Digitoxigenin, a precursor of cardiac glycosides, and Clofazimine, a fat-soluble iminophenazine used in leprosy. In vitro and in vivo validation studies will be needed to confirm the efficacy of these molecules for the prevention and treatment of metastatic uveal melanoma.

Mechanisms of action and therapeutic efficacies of the lipophilic antimycobacterial agents clofazimine and bedaquiline

Drug-resistant (DR)-TB is the major challenge confronting the global TB control programme, necessitating treatment with second-line anti-TB drugs, often with limited therapeutic efficacy. This scenario has resulted in the inclusion of Group 5 antibiotics in various therapeutic regimens, two of which promise to impact significantly on the outcome of the therapy of DR-TB. These are the 're-purposed' riminophenazine, clofazimine, and the recently approved diarylquinoline, bedaquiline. Although they differ structurally, both of these lipophilic agents possess cationic amphiphilic properties that enable them to target and inactivate essential ion transporters in the outer membrane of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In the case of bedaquiline, the primary target is the key respiratory chain enzyme F₁/F₀-ATPase, whereas clofazimine is less selective, apparently inhibiting several targets, which may underpin the extremely low level of resistance to this agent. This review is focused on similarities and differences between clofazimine and bedaquiline, specifically in respect of molecular mechanisms of antimycobacterial action, targeting of quiescent and metabolically active organisms, therapeutic efficacy in the clinical setting of DR-TB, resistance mechanisms, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and adverse events.

The Roles of Mitochondrial Cation Channels Under Physiological Conditions and in Cancer

Bioenergetics has become central to our understanding of pathological mechanisms as well as the development of new therapeutic strategies and as a tool for gauging disease progression in neurodegeneration, diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. The view is emerging that inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) cation channels have a profound effect on mitochondrial function and, consequently, on the metabolic state and survival of the whole cell. Since disruption of the sustained integrity of mitochondria is strongly linked to human disease, pharmacological intervention offers a new perspective concerning neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases as well as cancer. This review summarizes our current knowledge regarding IMM cation channels and their roles under physiological conditions as well as in cancer, with special emphasis on potassium channels and the mammalian mitochondrial calcium uniporter.