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Agudelo JP, Upadhyay D, Zhang D, Zhao H, Nolley R, Sun J, Agarwal S, Bok RA, Vigneron DB, Brooks JD, Kurhanewicz J, Peehl DM, Sriram R. Multiparametric Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Metabolic Characterization of Patient-Derived Xenograft Models of Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma. Metabolites 2022; 12:1117. [PMID: 36422257 PMCID: PMC9692472 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12111117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Patient-derived xenografts (PDX) are high-fidelity cancer models typically credentialled by genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics. Characterization of metabolic reprogramming, a hallmark of cancer, is less frequent. Dysregulated metabolism is a key feature of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) and authentic preclinical models are needed to evaluate novel imaging and therapeutic approaches targeting metabolism. We characterized 5 PDX from high-grade or metastatic ccRCC by multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and steady state metabolic profiling and flux analysis. Similar to MRI of clinical ccRCC, T2-weighted images of orthotopic tumors of most PDX were homogeneous. The increased hyperintense (cystic) areas observed in one PDX mimicked the cystic phenotype typical of some RCC. The negligible hypointense (necrotic) areas of PDX grown under the highly vascularized renal capsule are beneficial for preclinical studies. Mean apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values were equivalent to those of ccRCC in human patients. Hyperpolarized (HP) [1-13C]pyruvate MRI of PDX showed high glycolytic activity typical of high-grade primary and metastatic ccRCC with considerable intra- and inter-tumoral variability, as has been observed in clinical HP MRI of ccRCC. Comparison of steady state metabolite concentrations and metabolic flux in [U-13C]glucose-labeled tumors highlighted the distinctive phenotypes of two PDX with elevated levels of numerous metabolites and increased fractional enrichment of lactate and/or glutamate, capturing the metabolic heterogeneity of glycolysis and the TCA cycle in clinical ccRCC. Culturing PDX cells and reimplanting to generate xenografts (XEN), or passaging PDX in vivo, altered some imaging and metabolic characteristics while transcription remained like that of the original PDX. These findings show that PDX are realistic models of ccRCC for imaging and metabolic studies but that the plasticity of metabolism must be considered when manipulating PDX for preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao Piraquive Agudelo
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Deepti Upadhyay
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Dalin Zhang
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Hongjuan Zhao
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Rosalie Nolley
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Jinny Sun
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Shubhangi Agarwal
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Robert A. Bok
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Daniel B. Vigneron
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - James D. Brooks
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - John Kurhanewicz
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Donna M. Peehl
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Renuka Sriram
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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Wang J, Liu X, Ji J, Luo J, Zhao Y, Zhou X, Zheng J, Guo M, Liu Y. Orthotopic and Heterotopic Murine Models of Pancreatic Cancer Exhibit Different Immunological Microenvironments and Different Responses to Immunotherapy. Front Immunol 2022; 13:863346. [PMID: 35874730 PMCID: PMC9302770 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.863346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
For decades, tumor-bearing murine models established using tumor cell lines have been the most commonly used models to study human cancers. Even though there are several studies reported that implant sites caused disparities in tumor behaviors, few of them illuminated the positional effect on immunotherapy. Herein, we describe surgical techniques for a novel orthotopic implantation of syngeneic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) tissue slices. This method has a high success modeling rate and stable growth kinetics, which makes it useful for testing novel therapeutics. Pathological examination indicated that the orthotopic tumor displayed poor vascularization, desmoplastic stromal reaction, and a highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. This unique microenvironment resulted in limited response to PD1/CTLA4 blockade therapy and anti-MUC1 (αMUC1) CAR-T transfer treatment. To reverse the suppressive tumor microenvironment, we developed gene modified T-cells bearing a chimeric receptor in which activating receptor NKG2D fused to intracellular domains of 4-1BB and CD3ζ (NKG2D CAR). The NKG2D CAR-T cells target myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), which overexpress Rae1 (NKG2D ligands) within the TME. Results indicated that NKG2D CAR-T cells eliminated MDSCs and improved antitumor activity of subsequently infused CAR-T cells. Moreover, we generated a bicistronic CAR-T, including αMUC1 CAR and NKG2D CAR separated by a P2A element. Treatment with the dual targeted bicistronic CAR-T cells also resulted in prolonged survival of orthotopic model mice. In summary, this study describes construction of a novel orthotopic PDAC model through implantation of tissue slices and discusses resistance to immunotherapy from the perspective of a PDAC microenvironment. Based on the obtained results, it is evident that elimination MDSCs by NKG2D CAR could rescue the impaired CAR-T cell activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Wang
- Department of pathology, Changhai Hospital, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xingchen Liu
- Department of pathology, Changhai Hospital, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Junsong Ji
- Institute of Organ Transplantation, Changzheng Hospital, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianhua Luo
- National Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology & Institute of Immunology, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuanyu Zhao
- Institute of Organ Transplantation, Changzheng Hospital, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaonan Zhou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Changzheng Hospital, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianming Zheng
- Department of pathology, Changhai Hospital, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yanfang Liu, ; Meng Guo, ; Jianming Zheng,
| | - Meng Guo
- National Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology & Institute of Immunology, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yanfang Liu, ; Meng Guo, ; Jianming Zheng,
| | - Yanfang Liu
- Department of pathology, Changhai Hospital, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
- National Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology & Institute of Immunology, Navy Medical University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yanfang Liu, ; Meng Guo, ; Jianming Zheng,
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Beck J, Ren L, Huang S, Berger E, Bardales K, Mannheimer J, Mazcko C, LeBlanc A. Canine and murine models of osteosarcoma. Vet Pathol 2022; 59:399-414. [PMID: 35341404 PMCID: PMC9290378 DOI: 10.1177/03009858221083038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common malignant bone tumor in children. Despite efforts to develop and implement new therapies, patient outcomes have not measurably improved since the 1980s. Metastasis continues to be the main source of patient mortality, with 30% of cases developing metastatic disease within 5 years of diagnosis. Research models are critical in the advancement of cancer research and include a variety of species. For example, xenograft and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) mouse models provide opportunities to study human tumor cells in vivo while transgenic models have offered significant insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying OS development. A growing recognition of naturally occurring cancers in companion species has led to new insights into how veterinary patients can contribute to studies of cancer biology and drug development. The study of canine cases, including the use of diagnostic tissue archives and clinical trials, offers a potential mechanism to further canine and human cancer research. Advancement in the field of OS research requires continued development and appropriate use of animal models. In this review, animal models of OS are described with a focus on the mouse and tumor-bearing pet dog as parallel and complementary models of human OS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ling Ren
- National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD
| | | | | | - Kathleen Bardales
- National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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Katz L, Woolman M, Tata A, Zarrine-Afsar A. Potential impact of tissue molecular heterogeneity on ambient mass spectrometry profiles: a note of caution in choosing the right disease model. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 413:2655-2664. [PMID: 33247337 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-03054-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This review provides a summary of known molecular alterations in commonly used cancer models and strives to stipulate how they may affect ambient mass spectrometry profiles. Immortalized cell lines are known to accumulate mutations, and xenografts derived from cell lines are known to contain tumour microenvironment elements from the host animal. While the use of human specimens for mass spectrometry profiling studies is highly encouraged, patient-derived xenografts with low passage numbers could provide an alternative means of amplifying material for ambient MS research when needed. Similarly, genetic preservation of patient tissue seen in some organoid models, further verified by qualitative proteomic and transcriptomic analyses, may argue in favor of organoid suitability for certain ambient profiling studies. However, to choose the appropriate model, pre-evaluation of the model's molecular characteristics in the context of the research question(s) being asked will likely provide the most appropriate strategy to move research forward. This can be achieved by performing comparative ambient MS analysis of the disease model of choice against a small amount of patient tissue to verify concordance. Disease models, however, will continue to be useful tools to orthogonally validate metabolic states of patient tissues through controlled genetic alterations that are not possible with patient specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Katz
- Techna Institute for the Advancement of Technology for Health, University Health Network, 100 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G 1P5, Canada.,Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Michael Woolman
- Techna Institute for the Advancement of Technology for Health, University Health Network, 100 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G 1P5, Canada.,Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Alessandra Tata
- Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Istituto Zooprofilattico delle Venezie, Viale Fiume 78, 36100, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Arash Zarrine-Afsar
- Techna Institute for the Advancement of Technology for Health, University Health Network, 100 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G 1P5, Canada. .,Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada. .,Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, 149 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 1P5, Canada. .,Keenan Research Center for Biomedical Science & the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 1W8, Canada.
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Pereira-Silva M, Jarak I, Alvarez-Lorenzo C, Concheiro A, Santos AC, Veiga F, Figueiras A. Micelleplexes as nucleic acid delivery systems for cancer-targeted therapies. J Control Release 2020; 323:442-462. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
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Roche S, O’Neill F, Murphy J, Swan N, Meiller J, Conlon NT, Geoghegan J, Conlon K, McDermott R, Rahman R, Toomey S, Straubinger NL, Straubinger RM, O’Connor R, McVey G, Moriarty M, Clynes M. Establishment and Characterisation by Expression Microarray of Patient-Derived Xenograft Panel of Human Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Patients. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030962. [PMID: 32024004 PMCID: PMC7037178 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer remains among the most lethal cancers worldwide, with poor early detection rates and poor survival rates. Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models have increasingly been used in preclinical and clinical research of solid cancers to fulfil unmet need. Fresh tumour samples from human pancreatic adenocarcinoma patients were implanted in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice. Samples from 78% of treatment-naïve pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma patients grew as PDX tumours and were confirmed by histopathology. Frozen samples from F1 PDX tumours could be later successfully passaged in SCID mice to F2 PDX tumours. The human origin of the PDX was confirmed using human-specific antibodies; however, the stromal component was replaced by murine cells. Cell lines were successfully developed from three PDX tumours. RNA was extracted from eight PDX tumours and where possible, corresponding primary tumour (T) and adjacent normal tissues (N). mRNA profiles of tumour vs. F1 PDX and normal vs. tumour were compared by Affymetrix microarray analysis. Differential gene expression showed over 5000 genes changed across the N vs. T and T vs. PDX samples. Gene ontology analysis of a subset of genes demonstrated genes upregulated in normal vs. tumour vs. PDX were linked with cell cycle, cycles cell process and mitotic cell cycle. Amongst the mRNA candidates elevated in the PDX and tumour vs. normal were SERPINB5, FERMT1, AGR2, SLC6A14 and TOP2A. These genes have been associated with growth, proliferation, invasion and metastasis in pancreatic cancer previously. Cumulatively, this demonstrates the applicability of PDX models and transcriptomic array to identify genes associated with growth and proliferation of pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Roche
- National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
- Correspondence:
| | - Fiona O’Neill
- National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Jean Murphy
- St. Vincent’s University Hospital, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Niall Swan
- St. Vincent’s University Hospital, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Justine Meiller
- National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Neil T. Conlon
- National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | | | - Kevin Conlon
- St. Vincent’s University Hospital, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Ray McDermott
- St. Vincent’s University Hospital, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Rozana Rahman
- St. Vincent’s University Hospital, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Sinead Toomey
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beaumont Hospital, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Ninfa L. Straubinger
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Robert M. Straubinger
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Robert O’Connor
- National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Gerard McVey
- St. Vincent’s University Hospital, Dublin 4, Ireland
- St Luke’s Radiation Oncology Network, Dublin 6, Ireland
| | - Michael Moriarty
- National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
- St Luke’s Radiation Oncology Network, Dublin 6, Ireland
| | - Martin Clynes
- National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
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Kalla D, Kind A, Schnieke A. Genetically Engineered Pigs to Study Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E488. [PMID: 31940967 PMCID: PMC7013672 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent decades have seen groundbreaking advances in cancer research. Genetically engineered animal models, mainly in mice, have contributed to a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved in cancer. However, mice are not ideal for translating basic research into studies closer to the clinic. There is a need for complementary information provided by non-rodent species. Pigs are well suited for translational biomedical research as they share many similarities with humans such as body and organ size, aspects of anatomy, physiology and pathophysiology and can provide valuable means of developing and testing novel diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Porcine oncology is a new field, but it is clear that replication of key oncogenic mutation in pigs can usefully mimic several human cancers. This review briefly outlines the technology used to generate genetically modified pigs, provides an overview of existing cancer models, their applications and how the field may develop in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Angelika Schnieke
- Chair of Livestock Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany; (D.K.); (A.K.)
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Wang CF, Shi XJ. Generation and application of patient-derived xenograft models in pancreatic cancer research. Chin Med J (Engl) 2019; 132:2729-2736. [PMID: 31725451 PMCID: PMC6940092 DOI: 10.1097/cm9.0000000000000524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cancer (PDAC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Hence, the development of effective anti-PDAC therapies is urgently required. Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models are useful models for developing anti-cancer therapies and screening drugs for precision medicine. This review aimed to provide an updated summary of using PDX models in PDAC. DATA SOURCES The author retrieved information from the PubMed database up to June 2019 using various combinations of search terms, including PDAC, pancreatic carcinoma, pancreatic cancer, patient-derived xenografts or PDX, and patient-derived tumor xenografts or PDTX. STUDY SELECTION Original articles and review articles relevant to the review's theme were selected. RESULTS PDX models are better than cell line-derived xenograft and other models. PDX models consistently demonstrate retained tumor morphology and genetic stability, are beneficial in cancer research, could enhance drug discovery and oncologic mechanism development of PDAC, allow an improved understanding of human cancer cell biology, and help guide personalized treatment. CONCLUSIONS In this review, we outline the status and application of PDX models in both basic and pre-clinical pancreatic cancer researches. PDX model is one of the most appropriate pre-clinical tools that can improve the prognosis of patients with pancreatic cancer in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Fang Wang
- Department of Hepato-Biliary Surgery, The General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 hospital), Beijing 100853, China
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Khader S, Thyagarajan A, Sahu RP. Exploring Signaling Pathways and Pancreatic Cancer Treatment Approaches Using Genetic Models. Mini Rev Med Chem 2019; 19:1112-1125. [PMID: 30924420 DOI: 10.2174/1389557519666190327163644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite available treatment options, the overall survival rates of pancreatic cancer patients remain dismal. Multiple counter-regulatory pathways have been identified and shown to be involved in interfering with the efficacy of therapeutic agents. In addition, various known genetic alterations in the cellular signaling pathways have been implicated in affecting the growth and progression of pancreatic cancer. Nevertheless, the significance of other unknown pathways is yet to be explored, which provides the rationale for the intervention of new approaches. Several experimental genetic models have been explored to define the impact of key signaling cascades, and their mechanisms in the pathophysiology as well as treatment approaches of pancreatic cancer. The current review highlights the recent updates, and significance of such genetic models in the therapeutic efficacy of anti-tumor agents including the standard chemotherapeutic agents, natural products, cell signaling inhibitors, immunebased therapies and the combination of these approaches in pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shorooq Khader
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Boonshoft School of Medicine at Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45345, United States
| | - Anita Thyagarajan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Boonshoft School of Medicine at Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45345, United States
| | - Ravi P Sahu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Boonshoft School of Medicine at Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45345, United States
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Serial patient-derived orthotopic xenografting of adenoid cystic carcinomas recapitulates stable expression of phenotypic alterations and innervation. EBioMedicine 2019; 41:175-184. [PMID: 30765319 PMCID: PMC6442226 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models have significantly enhanced cancer research, and often serve as a robust model. However, enhanced growth rate and altered pathological phenotype with serial passages have repeatedly been shown in adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) PDX tumors, which is a major concern. METHODS We evaluated the fidelity of ACCs in their natural habitat by performing ACC orthotopic xenotransplantation (PDOX) in salivary glands. FINDINGS Our PDOX model enabled solid tumors to integrate within the local epithelial, stromal and neuronal environment. Over serial passages, PDOX tumors maintained their stereotypic MYB-NFIB translocation, and FGFR2 and ATM point mutations. Tumor growth rate and histopathology were retained, including ACCs hallmark presentations of cribriform, tubular, solid areas and innervation. We also demonstrate that the PDOX model retains its capacity as a tool for drug testing. INTERPRETATION Unlike the precedent PDX model, our data shows that the PDOX is a superior model for future cancer biology and therapy research. FUND: This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH)/National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) grants DE022557, DE027034, and DE027551.
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