Healthy Birth Practice #6: Keep Mother and Baby Together- It's Best for Mother, Baby, and Breastfeeding

Baby and Family-Centered Care in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: Changing Perspective

The goal of baby and family-centered care in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) is to recognize the baby's needs exhibited through the baby's individual behavior and communication and support parent education, engagement, and interaction with the baby to build a nurturing relationship. Health care providers and caregivers must guide rather than control the role of the parents from birth through NICU care, transition to home, and continuing care at home. Parents are health care team members, primary caregivers, and shared decision-makers in caring for their babies.

Drug Use and Human Milk: Legal and Child Welfare Considerations

INTRODUCTION

Preventing new parents who use drugs from bonding with and bodyfeeding their babies undermines public health. Because U.S. culture treats substance use as a moral failing rather than a health concern, punitive responses to perinatal substance use continue to dominate. This is particularly true for families of color, who are more likely to be targeted by the family regulation system. These approaches fail to protect families, and cause their own, separate harm. This article will lay out existing evidence surrounding bodyfeeding. Then, it will debunk harmful mythologies about drug use and human milk, and compare the risks associated with using drugs while bodyfeeding to those inherent in family separation. Finally, it will make the case for harm-reduction approaches over criminal ones.

OBJECTIVES

The health risks associated with family separation are only rarely weighed against those associated with drug exposure through human milk. Our objective for this paper is to contribute new ways of framing the importance of keeping families together at birth, even when perinatal substance use is detected.

METHODS

This manuscript is not based upon clinical study or patient data, and exclusively references studies and research publications that have been approved by the appropriate ethics committee and which have therefore been performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.

RESULTS

Significant research data support the position that the risks associated with family separation are arguably greater than those associated with exposure to substance use in human milk.

CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE

Harm reduction approaches should be favored over criminal approaches when perinatal substance use is detected or confirmed.

Evidence-Based Consensus Recommendations for Skin Care in Healthy, Full-Term Neonates in India

Purpose

Neonatal skin care practices guided by personal experience and preferences might be substantially different across different hospital settings. The aim of this consensus recommendation is to provide clinical practice guidance to healthcare practitioners on evidence-based neonatal skin care practices from delivery-to-discharge, in hospital settings.

Patients and Methods

A Scientific Advisory Board meeting on "Evidence-based Neonatal Skin Care Practices and Protocols" was held in December 2020 with an expert panel comprising neonatologists, pediatricians, obstetricians and gynecologists and pediatric dermatologist. Comprehensive literature search was performed up to 23 March 2021 using PubMed and Google Scholar to retrieve relevant evidence.

Results

Recommendations were developed on critical aspects of skin care in healthy full-term neonates including cleansing at birth, skin-to-skin care, cord care, diaper area care, initial and routine bathing, cleansers and emollients use, and criteria to choose appropriate skin care products. Recommendations include inclusion of skin assessment in routine neonatal care, first bath timing after cardio-respiratory and thermal stabilization, 6-24 hours after birth; bathing with water alone or adding a mild liquid cleanser could be considered appropriate as it does not impact the developing skin barrier; use of emollients is recommended for neonates with higher risk of development of eczema to maintain and enhance skin barrier function and integrity; and inclusion of skin care advice in neonatal discharge checklist. Importance of rigorous quality control, high-quality clinical trials for assessment of baby products, usage of products that are formulated appropriately for newborns, and full label transparency for baby products were highlighted. The panel identified gaps in literature and discussed the scope for future research.

Conclusion

These recommendations may help to standardize evidence-based skin care for healthy full-term neonates in Indian hospital settings to improve the quality of care that neonates receive in hospital and facilitate improvement in overall neonatal health outcomes.

The several faces of the medicalization of birth. Italy and its peculiarities

Background

Medical-scientific advances in maternal care gradually improved the health of mothers and new-borns. However, this has contributed to increasing levels of medicalization, defined as the overuse of medical interventions even in low-risk pregnancies and childbirths. In Italy pregnancy and birth still appear to be rather medicalized than in the rest of Europe. Moreover, the uneven distribution of these practice over the territory appears to be evident. The purpose of this article is to both highlight and explain the Italian peculiarity in terms of high medicalization of childbirth and its territorial variability.

Theoretical framework

The extensive literature on medicalization of childbirth was systematized by some scholars who use childbirth as a case study to distinguish four meanings of medicalization, by classifying them into two generations of theories. Alongside this literature several studies attempted to interpret differences in maternity model of care showing the important role played by path dependence.

Results

In the European scenario, Italy stands out for its high percentage of cesarean sections, but also for its excessive recourse to antenatal visits during pregnancy and the application of interventions during labor and vaginal births. Going into regional detail, however, Italian situation appears rather uneven: relevant differences emerge in relation to medicalization of both pregnancy and birth.

Discussion

The article explores the possibility that areas whit different sociocultural, economic, political and institutional background may have introjected different meanings of medicalization, thus reproducing different maternity models of care. In fact, the simultaneous presence, in Italy, of four different meanings of medicalization seems to be rooted. Even with some similar traits, different conditions and situations emerge in different geographical areas, leading to the prevalence of one meaning rather than another and resulting on different outcomes in terms of medicalization.

Conclusion

The data presented in this article seem to deny the existence of a national maternity model of care and. On the contrary, they confirm the idea that medicalization is not necessarily linked to the different health conditions of mothers in different geographical areas and that a path dependent variable is able to explain it.

Implementing the Role of Neonatal Assessment Nurse to Improve Skin-to-Skin Care and Breastfeeding Exclusivity

OBJECTIVE

To improve rates of exclusive breastfeeding during the postpartum hospital stay by implementing a new role of dedicated neonatal assessment nurse (NAN), whose primary function was neonatal care beginning immediately after birth.

DESIGN

Quality improvement project with plan-do-study-act using evidence-based guidelines for implementing the NAN role.

SETTING/LOCAL PROBLEM

Labor and delivery department of a tertiary care teaching hospital in the southeastern United States; breastfeeding exclusivity rates at this hospital were in the range of 50%.

PARTICIPANTS

Registered nurses employed in the labor-delivery-recovery unit, mother-baby unit, and NICU.

INTERVENTION/MEASUREMENTS

The NAN role was implemented to promote immediate skin-to-skin care (SSC) for stable newborns after vaginal and cesarean birth. Each NAN's competency was evaluated at the beginning and end of the education session through a pretest/posttest, and a skills validation was used to affirm their readiness for the new role. The outcome measure was breastfeeding exclusivity at the time of discharge from the hospital. SSC initiation and duration immediately after birth were the process measures.

RESULTS

Twenty-five bedside registered nurses participated in this quality improvement project. There was a statistically significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores (p < .001), indicating a knowledge increase. All nurses met the skills validation criteria. The rate of SSC immediately after vaginal birth increased from 49% to 82% and after cesarean birth from 33% to 63%. Breastfeeding exclusivity rate at the time of discharge from the hospital increased from 50% to 86%.

CONCLUSION

The NAN role provided transitional care at the bedside without the separation of mothers and newborns. This was an innovative role, without the need to hire new staff, that provided evidence-based care, resulting in improved SSC and exclusivity of breastfeeding before discharge.

Emergency Delivery

Despite the majority of US births occurring in hospitals and under the direct care of obstetricians, there is a subset of patients who will deliver imminently in the emergency department (ED). ED physicians must be skillfully trained to manage both uncomplicated and complicated delivery scenarios. An ED delivery may require resuscitation of both mother and infant, so supplies should be readily available and all necessary consultants and support staff should be involved to ensure the best outcome. Most births are uncomplicated and require no significant additional interventions but ED staff must be prepared for these more complicated scenarios.

Perinatal Hospital Practices Are Associated with Breastfeeding through 5 Months Postpartum among Women and Infants from Low-Income Households

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding (BF) provides optimal nutrition during the first 6 mo of life and is associated with reduced infant mortality and several health benefits for children and mothers. However, not all infants in the United States are breastfed, and sociodemographic disparities exist in BF rates. Experiencing more BF-friendly maternity care practices at the hospital is associated with better BF outcomes, but limited research has examined this association among mothers enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), a population at risk of low BF rates.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the association between BF-related hospital practices (rooming-in, support from hospital staff, and provision of a pro-formula gift pack) and the odds of any or exclusive BF through 5 mo among infants and mothers enrolled in WIC.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the WIC Infant and Toddler Feeding Practices Study II, a nationally representative cohort of children and caregivers enrolled in WIC. Exposures included maternal experience of hospital practices reported at 1 mo postpartum, and BF outcomes were surveyed at 1, 3, and 5 mo. ORs and 95% CIs were obtained using survey-weighted logistic regression, adjusting for covariates.

RESULTS

Rooming-in and strong hospital staff support were associated with higher odds of any BF at 1, 3, and 5 mo postpartum. Provision of a pro-formula gift pack was negatively associated with any BF at all time points and with exclusive BF at 1 mo. Each additional BF-friendly hospital practice experienced was associated with 47% to 85% higher odds of any BF over the first 5 mo and 31% to 36% higher odds of exclusive BF over the first 3 mo.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to BF-friendly hospital practices was associated with BF beyond the hospital stay. Expanding BF-friendly policies at the hospital could increase BF rates in the United States WIC-served population.

Mother and newborn skin-to-skin contact and timely initiation of breastfeeding in sub-Saharan Africa

BACKGROUND

Mother and newborn skin-to-skin contact (SSC) plays a key role in breastfeeding practices of mothers. In this study, we examined the association between mother and newborn SSC and timely initiation of breastfeeding in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

METHODS

This cross-sectional study utilized nationally representative data from the Demographic and Health Surveys of 17 countries in SSA from 2015 to 2020. Multilevel binary logistic regression analysis was performed to examine the association between mother and newborn SSC and timely initiation of breastfeeding. The results are presented using adjusted odds ratios (aOR), with 95% confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

The pooled prevalences of mother and newborn SSC and timely initiation of breastfeeding were 45.68% (95% CI = 34.12-57.23) and 62.89% (95% CI = 55.67-70.11), respectively. Mothers who practiced newborn SSC were more likely to practice timely initiation of breastfeeding compared to those who did not practice SSC [aOR = 1.68, 95% CI = 1.58, 1.78] and this persisted after controlling for all the covariates [aOR = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.29, 1.47]. At the country level, mother and newborn SSC increased the odds of timely initiation of breastfeeding in Angola [aOR = 1.99, 95% CI = 1.44, 2.76], Cameroon [aOR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.02, 1.99], Ethiopia [aOR = 1.62, 95% CI = 1.16, 2.28], Guinea [aOR = 1.69, 95% CI = 1.10, 2.60], Liberia [aOR = 2.03, 95% CI = 1.33, 3.12], Malawi [aOR = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.02, 2.12], Mali [aOR = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.10, 1.84], Sierra Leone [aOR = 1.87, 95% CI = 1.23, 2.83], South Africa [aOR = 2.59, 95% CI = 1.41, 4.76], Tanzania [aOR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.27, 2.01], Uganda [aOR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.02, 1.99], Zambia [aOR = 1.86, 95% CI = 1.50, 2.30], and Zimbabwe [aOR = 1.65, 95% CI = 1.24, 2.21].

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of SCC was relatively low but timely initiation of breastfeeding was high. Mother and newborn SSC is a strong predictor of timely initiation of breastfeeding in SSA. To enhance timely initiation of breastfeeding after birth, this study recommends that more child and maternal healthcare interventions focused on improving mother and newborn SSC should be implemented.

Care of the Well Newborn

Care of the newborn infant is a critical skill for general pediatricians and other providers in the practice of pediatric medicine. Optimal care relies on a thorough understanding of risk factors that may be present during the pregnancy and delivery, as well as the ability to recognize and address unanticipated problems in the postnatal period. This article focuses on antenatal care of the newborn, issues that present in the immediate postdelivery period, and care of the newborn after discharge. It also includes updated information on current topics in pediatric practice, such as the importance of vaccination, parental hesitancy in accepting common medical interventions, and updated guidelines related to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. At the conclusion of the article, the reader should have a general understanding of antenatal risk factors that could affect the transition from the intrauterine environment and have the knowledge to address common issues that arise in the care of newborn infants.

Parents and newborn "togetherness" after birth

Purpose

Zero separation is a family-centred approach where newborns should be accompanied by their parents, regardless of the type of birth or health status. To our knowledge, few studies have described the way this approach is realized in clinical practice. This study describes situations of separation between mother/partner and newborn after birth on the labour ward, maternity ward and at the neonatal unit.

Method

An observation study was conducted during four months at a Swedish hospital. All caregivers at the three units were given the task of collecting the data. A semantic thematic analysis was performed with an inductive approach.

Results

Six themes emerged from the analysis. Two themes were common to all three units, one theme was common to two units and three themes emerged at only one unit. The themes describe various causes of separation, such as organizational and economic barriers, clinical routines, parents’ own decisions, shortage of collaboration within and between units, as well as a shortage of interprofessional communication.

Conclusion

Our study shows that there is still a gap between the latest evidence-based knowledge of the importance of zero separation and current practice in newborn care. There is a need for continuous collaboration between all units responsible for the care of mother and newborn.

Maternal perceptions and experiences of breastfeeding support in Baby-Friendly hospitals: An integrative review

Background

The Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative aims to improve breastfeeding by implementing the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding (Ten Steps) into routine breastfeeding support in birth hospitals. Maternal perspective to breastfeeding support is important to consider as mothers and their infants are in the center of that support.

Objectives

To review and synthesize the existing literature on maternal perceptions and experiences of breastfeeding support in Baby-Friendly hospitals. A sub-aim was to describe differences in breastfeeding support between Baby-Friendly hospitals and non-Baby-Friendly hospitals from maternal perspective.

Data sources and review methods

An integrative literature review. A systematic literature search was conducted in October 2021 in five databases: PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane, Scopus, Web of Science. Original peer-reviewed studies published in English exploring maternal viewpoints on breastfeeding support in Baby-Friendly hospitals were included. Two reviewers independently screened the titles (n=914), abstracts (n=226), and full texts (n=47). The review comprised of seventeen studies and includes both quantitative studies (n=14) and qualitative studies (n=3). Inductive content analysis and descriptive synthesis were conducted.

Results

Most studies (n=14) measured hospitals' compliance with the Ten Steps practices from maternal perspective. Mothers were provided with breastfeeding information and encouragement, however, a qualitative finding indicated that information focused on positive aspects of breastfeeding. Early skin-to-skin contact between the mother and infant was well facilitated although often not lasting more than 30 min. Breastfeeding was facilitated by practical support but according to findings of two qualitative studies, support was not always adequate to address mothers' problems with breastfeeding. Most mothers were exclusively breastfeeding during the hospital stay and no supplemental milk was offered to infant. Mothers were roomed-in together with their infant and were mostly encouraged to breastfeed on demand. Differences between Baby-Friendly hospitals and non-Baby-Friendly hospitals were observed particularly for steps 6 and 9: supplementary feeding and pacifier use were less common in Baby-Friendly hospitals.

Conclusions

From the maternal perspective, breastfeeding support in the Baby-Friendly hospitals was mainly but not completely in adherence with the Ten Steps practices. Low compliance with some of the Ten Steps indicates a need for a more frequent assessment of the breastfeeding support practices and consideration of strategies facilitating a more sustainable implementation of the initiative. Regardless of some shortcomings with the breastfeeding support, mothers were mainly satisfied with the support in the hospital. Mothers in the Baby-Friendly hospitals perceived that breastfeeding support was more adherent to the Ten Steps compared to mothers in non-Baby-Friendly hospitals.

Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in neonates born to mothers or relatives with COVID-19

BACKGROUND

In December 2019, in Wuhan, China, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was emerged due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). It seems that children and neonates, similar to adult and elderly individuals, are at risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, adequate data are not available about neonates infected with SARS-CoV-2.

METHODS

This study evaluated the presence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in neonates born to mothers or relatives with COVID-19. This cross-sectional study was performed on 25,044 consecutive Iranian participants in Tehran, Iran, from January 2020 to August 2020. Viral ribonucleic acid (RNA) was extracted from 500 µl of the oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal specimens of the participants. The genomic RNA of SARS-CoV-2 was detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay.

RESULTS

Out of all participants, 98 (0.40%) cases were neonates born to mothers or relatives with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Therefore, the current study was performed on these neonates. Out of 98 studied neonates, 6 (6.1%) cases had positive PCR results for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Moreover, among 98 studied neonates' mothers, 25 (25.5%) cases had positive PCR results for SARS-CoV-2 infection.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study demonstrated that the rate of COVID-19 in neonates born to mothers or relatives with SARS-CoV-2 infection in the Iranian population is about 6.1%.

Uncovering the Model and Philosophy of Care of a Psychiatric Inpatient Mother-Baby Unit in a Qualitative Study with Staff

The postnatal period is high-risk time for the first onset and recurrence of maternal mental health disorders. Untreated maternal mental illness can have significant adverse impacts on a woman, her baby, and the wider family unit. For women with mental illnesses that cannot be managed in the community, psychiatric inpatient mother-baby units are the gold standard treatment whereby mothers are co-admitted with their infant for specialist perinatal and infant mental health assessment and treatment. The study explores the model of care and examines the philosophies of care that are used within a psychiatric mother-baby unit. Purposive sampling was used to conduct semi-structured focus group and individual interviews with multidisciplinary staff members at a single mother-baby unit. Themes derived from these interviews were coded into two primary themes and a range of sub-themes. The first primary theme focused on the Model of Care consisting of the following sub-themes: mental health care, physical health care, babies' care, building mother-baby relationship, fostering relationships with supports, and facilitating community support. The second primary theme centered around the Philosophy of Care comprising of: person-centered care, trauma-informed care, compassion-centered care, recovery-oriented care, attachment-informed care, non-judgmental care, strengths-based care and interdisciplinary care. The model can be used to provide consistency across mother-baby units and to support core capabilities of staff in providing an optimal level of care.

Enhancement of maternal-neonatal bonding during the COVID-19 pandemic: A quality improvement initiative

AIM

The COVID-19 pandemic adversely affected the essential care of newborns. In a tertiary care hospital in India, all COVID-19 suspect post-natal mothers awaiting COVID results were transferred to a ward shared with symptomatic COVID suspect female patients from other clinical specialities, due to shortage of space and functional health workforce. Babies born to COVID-19 suspect mothers were moved to a separate ward with a caretaker until their mothers tested negative. Due to shortage of beds and delay in receiving COVID results, mothers and babies were often discharged separately 2-3 days apart to their home. This deprived babies of their mother's milk and bonding. We, therefore, undertook a quality improvement (QI) initiative aiming to improve rooming-in of eligible COVID-19 suspect mother-newborn dyads from 0% to more than 90% over a period of 6 weeks.

METHODS

A QI team was formed which ran multiple Plan-Do-Study-Act cycles. The results were reviewed at regular intervals and interventions were adopted, adapted or abandoned. These included advocacy, rearrangement of wards, counselling of mothers and caretakers regarding infection prevention practices and coordination between labour room, post-natal ward and nursery staff.

RESULTS

An improvement in rooming-in from 0% to more than 90% was achieved.

CONCLUSION

QI methodology is a systematic approach in addressing and solving unexpected unforeseen problems effectively.

Review of Kangaroo Mother Care in the Middle East

Mothers and newborns have a natural physiological requirement to be together immediately after birth. A newborn has a keen sense of smell and will instinctively seek out the mother’s nipple and begin breastfeeding if placed skin-to-skin with her. This practice is known as Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC). It was first suggested in 1978 and has been recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a means to ensure successful breastfeeding. It is well documented that KMC is associated with positive breastfeeding outcomes, particularly in cases where breastfeeding is exclusive and, on average, continued for 3 months or longer. Studies of infant nutrition and breastfeeding have shown the importance of immediate, uninterrupted skin-to-skin contact between newborn and mother following vaginal birth. This practice is also recommended for mothers who give birth via cesarean section, once the newborn is stable. The rate of breastfeeding is still suboptimal in Middle Eastern countries, in light of the WHO’s recommendation that mothers should exclusively breastfeed for the first six months and continue breastfeeding for up to two years. To increase the rate of breastfeeding, practices should be promoted that have been shown to improve outcomes, such as KMC. However, little is known about this important practice in the region. The aim of this study was to shed light on KMC-related studies conducted in the Middle East between January 2010 and January 2022. Specifically, this review examines breastfeeding practice rates for the first 6 months of birth, and evidence of KMC practices, by country and type of study design. The research terms used for this review were “skin to skin”, “Skin to skin contact”, and “Kangaroo Mother Care”, focusing on “Middle East”, “Eastern Mediterranean”, “Arabian Gulf”, “Arab”, and “GCC”.

Prenatal opioid-exposed infant extracellular miRNA signature obtained at birth predicts severity of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome

Prenatal opioid exposure (POE) is commonly associated with neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS), which is characterized by a broad variability in symptoms and severity. Currently there are no diagnostic tools to reliably predict which infants will develop severe NOWS, while risk stratification would allow for proactive decisions about appropriate clinical monitoring and interventions. The aim of this prospective cohort study was to assess if extracellular microRNAs (miRNAs) in umbilical cord plasma of infants with POE could predict NOWS severity. Participants (n = 58) consisted of pregnant women receiving medications for opioid use disorder and their infants. NOWS severity was operationalized as the need for pharmacologic treatment and prolonged hospitalization (≥ 14 days). Cord blood miRNAs were assessed using semi-quantitative qRT-PCR arrays. Receiver operating characteristic curves and area under the curve (AUC) were estimated. The expression of three miRNAs (miR-128-3p, miR-30c-5p, miR-421) predicted need for pharmacologic treatment (AUC: 0.85) and prolonged hospitalization (AUC: 0.90). Predictive validity improved after two miRNAs (let-7d-5p, miR-584-5p) were added to the need for pharmacologic treatment model (AUC: 0.94) and another two miRNAs (let-7b-5p, miR-10-5p) to the prolonged hospitalization model (AUC: 0.99). Infant cord blood extracellular miRNAs can proactively identify opioid-exposed neonates at high-risk for developing severe NOWS.

Anesthesia and breastfeeding

The importance of breastfeeding with its positive impact on the wellbeing of the mother-infant pair is well established. Anesthesiologists should encourage the promotion of lactation by being willing to give reassurance during the preoperative period and preparing a plan that does not interfere with safe breastfeeding. There is concern regarding the transfer of drugs into breast milk, which may lead to inconsistent advice from many health professionals and to early discontinuation. However, evidence shows that most anesthetic drugs are safe in terms of transfer into breast milk, and hence, compatible with breastfeeding, which should be resumed after anesthesia as soon as the mother is alert and feels well enough to hold her infant, without the need to “pump and dump”. This review provides pharmacokinetic information on commonly used anesthesia drugs and their passage into breast milk, to help practitioners discuss risks and benefits with the mother, emphasizing that anesthesia should not interfere with the benefits of breastfeeding. Four practical clinical scenarios are presented: pregnant women concerned about the effect of epidural analgesia on subsequent breastfeeding, spinal anesthesia for c-section and lactation, patients who will receive general anesthesia during cesarean section, and finally women who are breastfeeding and require anesthesia for elective or urgent surgery. Neuraxial anesthesia allows for better pain control and immediate skin-to-skin contact at the time of childbirth. Also, it interferes the least with the woman’s ability to care for her infant. Regional techniques, opioid-sparing techniques and outpatient surgery are preferred. Drugs such as opioids and longer-acting benzodiazepines should be administered cautiously, particularly in repeat doses.

The concept, importance and values of support during childbearing and breastfeeding - A discourse paper

BACKGROUND

Professional support in childbearing has beneficial effects on childbirth experience, interactions within the family, breastfeeding and medical outcomes. However, more knowledge is needed about prerequisites for professional support to be valuable and satisfactory during childbearing.

AIM

The aim of this discourse paper is to describe and explore prerequisites for professional support that are of value for women and their families during childbearing as well as how healthcare organizations can be formed to facilitate these prerequisites.

DESIGN

Discourse paper.

METHODS

This discourse paper is based on our own experiences and is supported by literature and theory.

RESULTS

Well-functioning structures and processes facilitate professional support that leads to safe, secure, calm and prepared parents with the ability to handle the challenges of childbearing and parenting. When organizing care in childbearing, prerequisites for support needs must also be considered.

Breastfeeding practices in an Australian tertiary care hospital: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization recommend that infants be exclusively breastfed until six months of age. The Baby Friendly Health Initiative (BFHI) was developed for protecting, promoting, and supporting breastfeeding. The BFHI global criteria guides hospital practice for supporting infant feeding and reducing disparities in breastfeeding outcomes.

AIM

The aim of this study was to analyse 2019 data to identify factors that predict exclusive breastfeeding vs non-exclusive breastfeeding on discharge to determine areas for intervention in relation to BFHI guidelines.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A retrospective chart review of 5836 neonates born at an Australian tertiary hospital in 2019 was conducted. Descriptive statistics were used to report exclusive breastfeeding rates. Univariate and logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding and non-exclusive breastfeeding on discharge.

RESULTS

A total of 69% of neonates were exclusively breastfed on discharge in 2019. When excluding admissions to Newborn Services, 75% of neonates were exclusively breastfed on discharge, achieving the BFHI benchmark. Predictors which significantly reduced the odds of exclusive breastfeeding on discharge were maternal country of birth (Vietnam, p < 0.001, Sudan p < 0.001, Samoa p < 0.01, Philippines p < 0.05), main language (Other, p < 0.05), birth type (caesarean or assisted vaginal birth p < 0.001), first-feed type (mixed feeding or formula p < 0.001), and Newborn Services admission (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Examining breastfeeding outcomes is an important quality assurance process for health services. Understanding groups of mothers who commence breastfeeding but do not exclusively breastfeed upon discharge enables identification of areas for intervention to achieve BFHI targets and reduce breastfeeding disparities.

Influence of Nutrition and Maternal Bonding on Postnatal Lung Development in the Newborn Pig

Background

Microbial colonization and immune cell maturation coincide at mucosal sites and are decisive for postnatal lung development. How external factors influence neonatal pulmonary immune development is poorly understood.

Objective

To elucidate the impact of key determinants in early life, nutrition, and maternal bonding, on postnatal lung maturation in a human-relevant animal model. To investigate the underlying immunological changes of impaired lung maturation and study the mechanisms of conversion.

Methods

Newborn piglets were kept with or without isolation from their mothers and fed bovine milk-based infant formula or received milk of sow. Lung growth, histomorphology, respiratory immune responses, and lung microbiota were analyzed. Mother- and sow-milk-deprived piglets received maternal material or were reintroduced to the maternal environment at varying intervals to study options for reversal.

Results

Formula feeding combined with isolation of newborn piglets resulted in disturbed postnatal lung maturation. Reduced lung growth correlated with dampened IL-33 expression, impaired lung myeloid cell activation, and decreased Th1 differentiation, along with diminished richness and diversity of the lung microbiota. Transfer of bacteria-enriched maternal material reversed the negative effects on pulmonary immune maturation. Early (within 3 days) but not late (within 7 days) reintroduction to the mother allowed restoration of normal lung development.

Conclusion

Our findings reveal that lung growth, respiratory immunity, and microbial lung colonization in newborns depend on postnatal diet and maternal contact, and targeting these key regulators could promote lung development during this critical life stage.

Summary

Disturbances in natural diet and reduced maternal contact during the neonatal period impair postnatal lung maturation. In pediatrics, timely breast milk feeding and intensive maternal bonding represent valuable intervention measures to promote early postnatal lung development.

Positive effect of home hemodialysis in a pregnant woman with chronic kidney failure during the COVID-19 pandemic: A case report

This report discusses the case of a 25-year-old pregnant woman from an underserved community, with two previous failed kidney transplants and a previous miscarriage. The patient required a progressive increase to 30 h a week of in-hospital hemodialysis during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. She delivered her baby while transitioning to home hemodialysis. Women with end-stage kidney disease who require hemodialysis and wish to become pregnant or who are pregnant have options to allow for a safe and healthy delivery. This can be achieved with vigorous hemodialysis, even at home.

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Women with end-stage kidney disease who require hemodialysis and attempting to become pregnant have options to allow for a safe and healthy delivery.

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A safe and healthy delivery can be achieved with vigorous hemodialysis, even at home.

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It may be possible for patients to transition to home hemodialysis from in-center hemodialysis.

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New types of healthcare barriers arose during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Well-Newborn Unit Director Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A BORN Study

BACKGROUND

As coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) spread across the country, well-newborn unit medical directors developed newborn care plans as guidelines and evidence evolved. We chose to examine approaches to newborn care during these early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

An electronic survey was administered to well-newborn unit directors in a national network of US well-newborn units in May 2020. Respondents were asked about their approaches to testing, infection prevention, routine newborn care, discharge planning, breastfeeding, rounding, and teaching.

RESULTS

Of 107 sites, 65 (61%) respondents completed the survey. Respondents estimated a 1% positivity rate of 1198 newborns tested for COVID-19. Most sites (86%) performed universal maternal COVID-19 testing, and most (82%) tested newborns of COVID-19-positive mothers at 24 hours of life (75%). Infection prevention and visitation policies varied. Of respondents, in COVID-19-positive mothers, 28% permitted no visitors, 54% recommended rooming-in with the newborn, 55% encouraged breastfeeding at the breast, 38% deferred routine circumcisions of the newborn, 74% initiated immediate bathing of the newborn, 68% continued standard newborn screening, and 55% modified newborn follow-up plans. Medical directors reported adjustments to rounding and teaching workflow. Content analysis of free-text responses revealed themes related to challenges with changing recommendations, discomfort with mother-infant separation recommendations, innovations, and stress management.

CONCLUSIONS

Well-newborn units quickly adopted universal maternal testing and testing of exposed newborns. Despite guidelines, we identified variation in the care of newborns of COVID-19-positive mothers. Further investigation of these differences and newborn outcomes is warranted to develop best practices.

Influence of social determinants of health on skin to skin contact between mother and newborn

OBJECTIVE

to analyze the association of skin-to-skin contact and social determinants of health.

METHODS

this is a cross-sectional study with 187 medical records of newborns from a reference rooming in in northeastern Brazil. An instrument with maternal and neonatal data was used. Analysis was descriptive and inferential statistics. For the associations, a chi-square test was used to measure strength, an Odds Ratio was calculated, with a 95% confidence interval.

RESULTS

62% of newborns who made skin-to-skin contact at birth were eutrophic, full-term, Apgar > 7, mothers with prenatal care and without abortion. The determinants associated with non-skin-to-skin contact were preterm (CR=3.2;95%CI: 2.72-18.98); 1st minute Apgar < 7 (CR:2.9;95%CI: 2.38-3.06), cesarean section (CR:8.4;95%CI: 4.29-16.57), and unhealthy NB (CR 12.7;95%CI: 4.9-32.67). We used STROBE guidelines.

CONCLUSION

skin-to-skin contact was influenced by gestational age, Apgar, delivery, and newborn health.

What are women's experiences of immediate skin-to-skin contact at caesarean section birth? An integrative literature review

BACKGROUND

Skin-to-skin is a well-established practice at vaginal births promoting the health of women and babies. Facilitation of skin-to-skin at caesarean section birth is growing despite environmental and historical challenges. This is led by the expectancy of women and of health professionals increasingly understanding its importance.

OBJECTIVE

To synthesise original research that explores the experience of women having immediate and uninterrupted skin-to-skin contact at caesarean section when woman and baby are well.

DESIGN

Integrative literature review.

DATA SOURCES

The databases of SCOPUS, PubMed, CINAHL plus, Wiley Online, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and MIDIRS were used to identify studies from 2010-2020. Hand searching of library journals, reference and citation lists were also used.

METHODS

The framework of Whittemore and Knafl (2005) was used to guide the literature search, thematic analysis, and synthesis of original research. Initial screening against inclusion criteria was utilised for English-published papers of full-term, well, woman and baby dyads who experienced skin-to-skin at caesarean section birth. Papers were not limited by methodology. The validated Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) was used for critical quality appraisal (Bartlett et al., 2018).

FINDINGS

In total, 750 results were returned in the initial search and a final 13 papers were included in this review including quantitative (6), qualitative (5) and mixed method (2) designs. Immediate and uninterrupted skin-to-skin at caesarean section birth, when mother and baby are well, is safe, appropriate and desired by women, improving birth experience and satisfaction. Three main themes were identified with sub-themes - Positive birth experience (satisfaction; breastfeeding goals); Sense of control (empowered; birth, not a procedure); Natural (wanting to hold their baby; becoming a mother).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this review show that skin-to-skin improves the experience for women, and particularly empowers women having a caesarean section giving them a sense of a more natural birth. Women see skin-to-skin as an opportunity to maintain control and not be separated from their baby. Many studies have focused on the benefits of skin-to-skin but less so on the wants and choices of women. Women want to see, hold and feed their babies but are unable to achieve this of their own volition during a surgical birth. Understanding how women value this close physical contact can seek to inform further research on the impact of separation. This can inform policy and practice development in maternity care services to ensure best outcomes for both women and infants.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The practice of skin-to-skin and keeping mother and baby together is valued by women and justified by research as best-practice for health and well-being. The findings of this paper highlight the importance of maternity settings facilitating both skin-to-skin and non-separation for all women and their newborns, even more so at caesarean section births.

Missed Nursing Care During Labor and Birth and Exclusive Breast Milk Feeding During Hospitalization for Childbirth

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to determine associations between missed nursing care and nurse staffing during labor and birth, and exclusive breast milk feeding at hospital discharge.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Labor and birth nurses in three states were surveyed about missed nursing care and their maternity units' adherence to the AWHONN (2010) nurse staffing guidelines for care during labor and birth, using the Perinatal Misscare Survey. Nursing responses were aggregated to the hospital level and estimated associations between missed nursing care, nurse staffing, and hospitals' exclusive breast milk feeding rates were measured using The Joint Commission's Perinatal Care Measure (PC-05).

RESULTS

Surveys from 512 labor nurses in 36 hospitals were included in the analysis. The mean exclusive breast milk feeding rate was 53% (range 13%-76%). Skin-to-skin care, breastfeeding within 1 hour of birth, and appropriate recovery care were on average occasionally missed (2.33 to 2.46 out of 4; 1 = rarely, 2 = occasionally, 3 = frequently, or 4 = always) and were associated with PC-05 [B(CI) -17.1(-29, -6.3), -17.9(-30.5, -6.2), and -15.4(-28.7, -2.1), respectively]. Adherence with overall staffing guidelines was associated with PC-05 [12.9(3.4, 24.3)]. Missed nursing care was an independent predictor of PC-05 [-14.6(-26.4, -2.7)] in a multilevel model adjusting for staffing guideline adherence, perceived quality, mean age of respondents, and nurse burnout.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Exclusive breast milk feeding is a national quality indicator of inpatient maternity care. Nurses have substantial responsibility for direct support of infant feeding during the childbirth hospitalization. These results support exclusive breast milk feeding (PC-05) as a nurse-sensitive quality indicator.

COVID-19 Illness: Mother–Baby Separation, Viruses, and Breastfeeding

Objectives

Some hospitals have instituted separation of mothers and their newborn(s) when SARS-CoV-2 is suspected or confirmed in the mother. Limited data are available for SARS-CoV-2 vertical transmission, including studies on breast milk. This article looks at SARS CoV-2 case studies and data to date as well as prior pertinent research.

Methods

Informal searches of PUBMED, CINAHL and Ovid Emcare were used to identify early reports of vertical transmissions of the novel Coronavirus, case reports, and population based reports of early evolving protocols and their outcomes. As this is a novel virus the authors used previously identified anti-infectivity and antiviral mechanisms of human milk on other similar viruses to guide analysis. Further this article reviewed the well established literature regarding the risks of undue infant separation which negatively affect nearly every aspect of infant and maternal health.

Results

Informal searches conducted in the spring and early summer of 2020 identified 14 early reports attempting to analyze the initial and evolving global response to SARS-CoV-2 and the effects of the virus on the maternal-infant dyad.

Conclusion

The feasibility of single-family rooms and support for breastfeeding as an alternative approach that addresses many of the risks favorably and reduces economic cost, both in lifetime disease burden and direct care are discussed. Initial reports seem to indicate that immediate separation of the mother from her newborn is likely to increase the risk to both mother and infant.

Characteristics and outcomes of neonatal SARS-CoV-2 infection in the UK: a prospective national cohort study using active surveillance

Background

Babies differ from older children with regard to their exposure to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, data describing the effect of SARS-CoV-2 in this group are scarce, and guidance is variable. We aimed to describe the incidence, characteristics, transmission, and outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection in neonates who received inpatient hospital care in the UK.

Methods

We carried out a prospective UK population-based cohort study of babies with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in the first 28 days of life who received inpatient care between March 1 and April 30, 2020. Infected babies were identified through active national surveillance via the British Paediatric Surveillance Unit, with linkage to national testing, paediatric intensive care audit, and obstetric surveillance data. Outcomes included incidence (per 10 000 livebirths) of confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe disease, proportions of babies with suspected vertically and nosocomially acquired infection, and clinical outcomes.

Findings

We identified 66 babies with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection (incidence 5·6 [95% CI 4·3–7·1] per 10 000 livebirths), of whom 28 (42%) had severe neonatal SARS-CoV-2 infection (incidence 2·4 [1·6–3·4] per 10 000 livebirths). 16 (24%) of these babies were born preterm. 36 (55%) babies were from white ethnic groups (SARS-CoV-2 infection incidence 4·6 [3·2–6·4] per 10 000 livebirths), 14 (21%) were from Asian ethnic groups (15·2 [8·3–25·5] per 10 000 livebirths), eight (12%) were from Black ethnic groups (18·0 [7·8–35·5] per 10 000 livebirths), and seven (11%) were from mixed or other ethnic groups (5·6 [2·2–11·5] per 10 000 livebirths). 17 (26%) babies with confirmed infection were born to mothers with known perinatal SARS-CoV-2 infection, two (3%) were considered to have possible vertically acquired infection (SARS-CoV-2-positive sample within 12 h of birth where the mother was also positive). Eight (12%) babies had suspected nosocomially acquired infection. As of July 28, 2020, 58 (88%) babies had been discharged home, seven (11%) were still admitted, and one (2%) had died of a cause unrelated to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Interpretation

Neonatal SARS-CoV-2 infection is uncommon in babies admitted to hospital. Infection with neonatal admission following birth to a mother with perinatal SARS-CoV-2 infection was unlikely, and possible vertical transmission rare, supporting international guidance to avoid separation of mother and baby. The high proportion of babies from Black, Asian, or minority ethnic groups requires investigation.

Funding

UK National Institute for Health Research Policy Research Programme.

Intraoperative Mother and Baby Skin-to-Skin Contact during Cesarean Birth: Systematic Review

PURPOSE

Experts recommend immediate skin-to-skin (SSC) contact for all alert and stable mothers and newborns after birth. Clinicians are working to incorporate immediate (intraoperative) SSC during cesarean birth. The purpose of this systematic review is to describe the state of the science of intraoperative SSC for mother and baby and increase clinician's awareness of its potential benefits and risks.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A systematic approach was followed throughout the review process. CINAHL, PubMed, and Embase databases were searched using strategies constructed by an academic health sciences librarian. Articles included in the review focused on SSC initiated during cesarean birth.

RESULTS

Thirteen studies were selected for the mixed-method systematic review. Six prospective studies, four retrospective chart reviews, and three qualitative studies met the inclusion criteria. Maternal stress levels were reduced, whereas comfort, oxytocin, and antioxidant levels increased with intraoperative SSC. Physiologic measures of successful newborn transition showed little difference between newborns held in intraoperative SSC and those who were not. Synthesis of qualitative experiences revealed mothers' intense desire to hold and know their baby immediately after birth.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Intraoperative SSC is a safe, beneficial, and highly desirable practice for mothers and newborns experiencing cesarean birth. Although barriers exist to its implementation, nurses can facilitate and support this practice. Evidence-based, family-centered intraoperative SSC should be offered to all stable mothers and babies according to recommendations and in a manner that promotes safe outcomes, including following current nurse staffing guidelines.

Differences in breastfeeding rate between mothers delivering by caesarean section and those delivering vaginally

Aim: The aim of the study was to analyse the impact of delivery on breastfeeding at 6 months, with special focus on caesarean section combined with established breastfeeding at 2 months. Methods: Delivery mode and breastfeeding at 2 and 6 months were studied in a database of 130,993 infants from two Swedish counties between 1990-2011. Results: The difference in breastfeeding rates at 6 months between children delivered by caesarean section and children delivered vaginally was smaller in a subpopulation of children with established breastfeeding at 2 months compared to all children. The impact of delivery method on breastfeeding at 6 months was independent of child gender, mother's first child, maternal smoking and maternal education. Conclusions: Breastfeeding in mothers giving birth by caesarean section is more likely to continue until (at least) 6 months if established early (at 2 months). It may be worthwhile to promote breastfeeding for mothers who deliver by caesarean section.

The experiences of mothers with preterm infants within the first-year post discharge from NICU: social support, attachment and level of depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

The estimated global premature birth rate for 2014 was 10.6%, equating to an estimate of 14.84 million live premature births. The experience of premature birth does not impact solely on the infant and mother as individuals but occurs in the context of a critical point in time when they are developing a relationship with one another. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between social support, mother to infant attachment, and depressive symptoms of mothers with preterm infants within the first 12 months' post discharge from the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU).

METHODS

A correlational cross-sectional study design was used. Data were collected using a four-part online survey which included the Perinatal Social Support Questionnaire (PICSS), Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale (MPAS) and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) with mothers of preterm infants (n = 140).

RESULTS

The prevalence of postnatal depression was 37.9% (95% CI: 29.8 to 46.4%). In univariable analyses, history of depression (p = 0.005), aged 35-39 years (p = 0.006), no formal social support (p = 0.040), less informal social supports (p = 0.018), lower overall maternal attachment (p < 0.001) and lower overall functional social support (p < 0.001) were significantly associated with a higher level of depressive symptoms. Lower scores on two of the maternal attachment subscales (quality of attachment and absence of hostility) and all four of the functional social support subscales were significantly associated with a higher level of depressive symptoms (p < 0.001 for all). In the multivariable analysis, prior history of depression (p = 0.028), lower score of maternal attachment (p < 0.001) and lower emotional functional social support (p = 0.030) were significantly associated with a higher level of depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Women who experience a premature birth, have a prior history of depression, poor infant attachment and poor emotional social support have a higher level of depressive symptoms. Results emphasise the need for professionals to encourage mobilisation of maternal formal and informal social supports. It is important to intervene early to address maternal emotional well-being and enhance the developing mother-preterm infant relationship.

Translation into Practice: Dextrose Gel Treatment for Neonatal Hypoglycemia to Reduce NICU Admissions and Increase Breastfeeding Exclusivity

BACKGROUND

Oral dextrose gel is an evidence-based treatment that has been shown to reduce NICU admissions and support exclusive breastfeeding.

PURPOSE

We summarize a knowledge translation project to introduce dextrose 40 percent oral gel to treat hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia. Implementation took place during the months of May, June, and July 2017.

RESULTS

Through chart audit, rates for NICU admissions and exclusive breastfeeding were measured for a three-month period before implementation and the three-month period after implementation.There were 234 doses indicated, 128 doses given, 93 doses missed, and 13 doses declined by parents in the first three months of implementation. Admission rates to the NICU for the groups audited were 13 percent in 2016 and 6 percent in 2017.Principles of knowledge translation were used to successfully introduce this change. Centers providing maternal newborn care should consider similar projects to enable introduction.

Bedsharing and Breastfeeding: The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol #6, Revision 2019

A central goal of the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine is the development of clinical protocols for managing common medical problems that may impact breastfeeding success. These protocols serve only as guidelines for the care of breastfeeding mothers and infants and do not delineate an exclusive course of treatment or serve as standards of medical care. Variations in treatment may be appropriate according to the needs of an individual patient.

Overcoming Rooming-In Barriers: A Survey on Mothers' Perspectives

Background: The importance of rooming-in in promoting breastfeeding initiation and continuation within the 10 Steps for Successful Breastfeeding is widely acknowledged. However, adherence to this practice by healthcare facilities is lower than that of other Steps. A deeper knowledge of maternal rooming-in experience has been advocated to identify the most effective rooming-in policies, thus enabling mothers to have a positive experience when practicing it in the postpartum period. Aim: To investigate maternal knowledge of rooming-in and the most frequently encountered barriers and possible facilitators of adherence to the practice, according to their experience. Study Design and Methods: We enrolled mothers who delivered healthy term or late preterm infants during the month of January 2019 in a tertiary referral center for neonatal care in Milan, Italy. At discharge, a structured interview about mothers' rooming-in experience was administered by healthcare professionals. Basic subjects' characteristics and mode of feeding were recorded. Results: The enrolled population included 328 mothers and 333 neonates. The great majority of mothers knew of rooming-in and 48.2% practiced it continuously. The 86.3% of mothers was aware of the beneficial effects of rooming-in; promotion of mother-infant bonding, increased confidence in taking care of the baby and ability to recognize baby's feeding cues were the most frequently cited, whereas improving breastfeeding was reported by a limited number of mothers, unless they were asked a specific question about it. The main reported obstacles were fatigue (40.5%) and cesarean section related difficulties (15.5%); night was the most critical time of the day for rooming-in. Strategies suggested by mothers for improving rooming-in were increased assistance to the dyad, organizational and structural changes and the possibility to have a family member during the night. Additionally, mothers who adhered to rooming-in practice continuously during hospital stay had a higher exclusive breastfeeding rate at discharge compared to mothers who did not. Conclusions: Our study contributes to a deeper knowledge of maternal rooming-in experience in an Italian tertiary maternity. We underline the importance of providing a tailored support to the mother-infant dyad in order to overcome rooming-in barriers perceived by mothers and promote a positive rooming-in experience.

Determinants of Exclusive Breastfeeding Cessation in the Early Postnatal Period among Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) Australian Mothers

There are limited epidemiological data on exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) among culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) Australian mothers to advocate for targeted and/or culturally-appropriate interventions. This study investigated the determinants of EBF cessation in the early postnatal period among CALD Australian mothers in Sydney, Australia. The study used linked maternal and child health data from two local health districts in Australia (N = 25,407). Prevalence of maternal breastfeeding intention, skin-to-skin contact, EBF at birth, discharge, and the early postnatal period (1-4 weeks postnatal), were estimated. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to investigate determinants of EBF cessation in the early postnatal period. Most CALD Australian mothers had the intention to breastfeed (94.7%). Skin-to-skin contact (81.0%), EBF at delivery (91.0%), and at discharge (93.0%) were high. EBF remained high in the early postnatal period (91.4%). A lack of prenatal breastfeeding intention was the strongest determinant of EBF cessation (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 23.76, 95% CI: 18.63-30.30, for mothers with no prenatal breastfeeding intention and aOR = 6.15, 95% CI: 4.74-7.98, for those undecided). Other significant determinants of EBF cessation included a lack of partner support, antenatal and postnatal depression, intimate partner violence, low socioeconomic status, caesarean birth, and young maternal age (<20 years). Efforts to improve breastfeeding among women of CALD backgrounds in Australia should focus on women with vulnerabilities to maximise the benefits of EBF.

"Breastfeeding in public" for incarcerated women: the baby-friendly steps

Background

Women are the fastest-growing population in carceral facilities in Canada. Most incarcerated women are mothers, with above-average parity. The incarceration of women has implications not only for women's health, but for that of their children. For example, how is breastfeeding and access to human milk supported in the context of imprisonment? Both carceral and health services are publicly-funded and administered in Canada. Due in part to the well-documented ill-health burden of imprisoned women, health and carceral functions overlap in the spaces of confinement. This paper discusses "breastfeeding in public" in relation to imprisoned women: separated from the public, yet in publicly-funded spaces under public servant control. With increasing adoption of Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFI) Ten Steps in Canadian health centres, there is a need to consider the health centre spaces precluded from its application and make visible the women and children affected. This paper uses the BFI Steps as a lens to consider the environment of confinement for the breastfeeding incarcerated person. The exclusion of breastfeeding and access to human milk for imprisoned women and children extends the punitive carceral function beyond the experience of incarceration and beyond the experience of the convicted mother.

Discussion

Carceral facilities lack breastfeeding policies, foundational to breastfeeding support. Despite high fertility and parity among incarcerated women, carceral health care providers are not required to demonstrate maternity and reproductive health care specialization. The overarching mission of carceral institutions remains security, and support for breastfeeding among incarcerated women is hampered in spaces of conflict, punishment, surveillance and control. A minimal requirement to support exclusive breastfeeding is to promote the mother being with the infant and most incarcerated mothers are separated from their infants. Incarcerated women lack support, information, and community connections for extended breastfeeding beyond six months. Carceral facilities are not welcoming environments for breastfeeding families. Despite the incompatibility of breastfeeding with incarceration, BFI Step 10, coordinating discharge, demonstrates opportunity for improvement through community and health care provider engagement.

Conclusion

Incarceration challenges the reach and applicability of the BFI Steps to enhance breastfeeding and to problematize the idea of breastfeeding "in public."

Reducing toxic stress in the neonatal intensive care unit to improve infant outcomes

In 2011, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) published a technical report on the lifelong effects of early toxic stress on human development, and included a new framework for promoting pediatric health: the Ecobiodevelopmental Framework for Early Childhood Policies and Programs. We believe that hospitalization is a specific form of toxic stress for the neonatal patient, and that toxic stress must be addressed by the nursing profession in order to substantially improve outcomes for the critically ill neonate. Approximately 4% of normal birthweight newborns and 85% of low birthweight newborns are hospitalized each year in the highly technological neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Neonates are exposed to roughly 70 stressful procedures a day during hospitalization, which can permanently and negatively alter the infant's developing brain. Neurologic deficits can be partly attributed to the frequent, toxic, and cumulative exposure to stressors during NICU hospitalization. However, the AAP report does not provide specific action steps necessary to address toxic stress in the NICU and realize the new vision for pediatric health care outlined therein. Therefore, this paper applies the concepts and vision laid out in the AAP report to the care of the hospitalized neonate and provides action steps for true transformative change in neonatal intensive care. We review how the environment of the NICU is a significant source of toxic stress for hospitalized infants. We provide recommendations for caregiving practices that could significantly buffer the toxic stress experienced by hospitalized infants. We also identify areas of research inquiry that are needed to address gaps in nursing knowledge and to propel nursing science forward. Finally, we advocate for several public policies that are not fully addressed in the AAP technical report, but are vital to the health and development of all newborns.

An educational intervention to implement skin-to-skin contact and early breastfeeding in a rural hospital in Mexico

Background

Early skin-to-skin contact promotes infant physiologic stability, provides warmth and makes breast milk readily available. Despite the known benefits of early skin-to-skin contact, this practice is not included within standard care in the Mexican public healthcare system. After birth, newborns are usually taken to an incubator in the nursery where they transition to extrauterine life and receive either dextrose 5% or infant formula for their first feed. The aim of this study was to assess if a dual educational intervention in a rural hospital in Mexico could modify current practice and accomplish early skin-to-skin contact and early breastfeeding.

Methods

A two-step educational intervention was designed. The first step was to educate the labor and birthing staff of the hospital, and the second step was to educate all pregnant women with uncomplicated pregnancies at 36 weeks’ gestation. The educational intervention explored the benefits, implications and steps of early skin-to-skin contact and early breastfeeding. All births were registered for the three month period following the intervention. The time of onset of skin-to-skin (SSC) contact, its duration and time of initiation of breastfeeding were recorded and analyzed using ANOVA testing.

Results

A total of 142 births met our inclusion criteria, from those, 77% (n = 109) received skin-to-skin contact and early breastfeeding. The average time of initiation of skin-to-skin contact in the first and last month of the study was 18.5 (± 2.2) and 9.6 (± 2.2) minutes of life, respectively (p < 0.001). The average duration of SSC in the first and last month was 22 (± 10.9) and 40.9 (± 17.4) minutes, respectively (p < 0.001). The average time of onset of breastfeeding in the first and last month was 48.9 (± 15) and 34.4 (± 16.7) minutes of life, respectively (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

A simple and low-cost educational intervention achieved the inclusion of skin-to-skin contact and early breastfeeding as part of standard care in a rural hospital. Further studies could replicate our intervention in similar settings to test the generalizability of the findings.

The effect of maternity practices on exclusive breastfeeding rates in U.S. hospitals

The Baby-friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) includes a set of 10 evidenced-based maternity practices that when used together have been shown to improve breastfeeding outcomes. In 2007, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention launched the Maternity Practices in Infant Nutrition and Care (mPINC) survey to assess and monitor these and other evidenced-based maternity practices. The purpose of this study was to explore individual maternity practices measured in the 2013 mPINC survey, along with hospital demographic information, and their relationships with exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) rates, using a sample of United States (U.S.) hospitals. We obtained mPINC survey data from 69 BFHI hospitals and 654 non-BFHI hospitals in the U.S., and EBF rates from The Joint Commission, a leading hospital accreditation agency. On the basis of linear regression analysis, we found that most maternity practices studied were significantly associated with EBF rates (max adjusted R2  = 14.9%). We found a parsimonious model with an adjusted R2 of 47.3%. This study supports the need for a systematic approach in providing breastfeeding support as no one maternity care practice was able to explain the variability in EBF rates as well as a collection of maternity care practices.

Trends in rooming-in practices among hospitals in the United States, 2007-2015

BACKGROUND

Rooming-in, or keeping mothers and infants together throughout the birth hospitalization, increases breastfeeding initiation and duration, and is one of the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding.

METHODS

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Maternity Practices in Infant Nutrition and Care (mPINC) survey is a biennial census of all birth facilities in the United States and its territories. Data from the 2007-2015 mPINC surveys were used to assess trends in the prevalence of hospitals with most (≥90%) infants rooming-in more than 23 hours per day (ideal practice). Hospital practices among breastfed infants not rooming-in at night and reasons why hospitals without ideal rooming-in practices removed healthy, full-term, breastfed infants from their mothers' rooms were also analyzed.

RESULTS

The percentage of hospitals with ideal practice increased from 27.8% in 2007 to 51.4% in 2015. Most breastfed infants who were not rooming-in were brought to their mothers at night for feedings (91.8% in 2015). Among hospitals without ideal rooming-in practices, the percentage removing 50% or more of infants from their mothers' rooms at any point during the hospitalization decreased for all reasons surveyed during 2007-2015; however, in 2015, hospitals still reported regularly removing infants for hearing tests (73.2%), heel sticks (65.5%), infant baths (40.2%), pediatric rounds (35.5%), and infant photos (25.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Hospital implementation of rooming-in increased 23.6 percentage points during 2007-2015. Continued efforts are needed to ensure that all mothers who choose to breastfeed receive optimal lactation support during the first days after giving birth.