A comparison of three interventions for increasing oral reading performance: Application of the instructional hierarchy

Lire en Français: Cross-Linguistic Effects of Reading Fluency Interventions in French Immersion Programs

Research on the development of reading skills in bilingual students suggests that reading skills develop interdependently across languages. The current study examined the effects of a French reading fluency intervention on the French and English reading skills of three Grade 3 students attending a French immersion program using a concurrent multiple baseline across participants single-case design. Results indicate that the intervention produced improvements in French reading fluency on instructional passages during intervention sessions and generalized improvements in English reading fluency skills. These findings provide additional support for the transferability of reading skills across languages.

The effects of two assistive technologies on reading comprehension accuracy and rate

This study compared the effectiveness of two assistive technologies to accommodate the word reading skills of four middle school students with reading learning disabilities. Kurzweil 3000 is a continuous text-to-speech (TTS) computer software program that allows students to follow along on a computer monitor while passages are read aloud. A reading pen is a discontinuous TTS assistive technology (AT) device that allows students to scan and hear selected words read aloud. An adapted alternating treatments design was implemented to compare the effects of listening-while-reading using continuous TTS AT, discontinuous TTS AT, and silently reading without accommodation on reading comprehension accuracy and rate. Results indicate that in three of the four participants, continuous TTS technology led to the greatest improvements in both comprehension accuracy and rate when compared to silent reading with effect sizes reaching 0.70 and 0.99, respectively. The fourth participant demonstrated the highest comprehension accuracy and rate in the discontinuous TTS condition. The discontinuous TTS condition led to the lowest comprehension rates across all four students. Additionally, participants generally found the continuous TTS AT to be the more acceptable of the two accommodations. Discussion focuses on possible theoretical explanations for the results and implications for future research.

Kompetenztestung bei Grundschulkindern

Zusammenfassung. Die vorliegende Studie ging der Frage nach, ob die Validität eines sprachlich vorgegebenen Wissenstests für Grundschülerinnen und Grundschüler durch bestimmte Administrationsbedingungen gesteigert werden kann. In der Studie bearbeiteten 319 Drittklässlerinnen und Drittklässler im Klassenkontext einen inhaltlichen Test zum metakognitiven Wissen über Lernstrategien, der in zwei Varianten (Zuhören vs. Zuhören und Mitlesen) vorgegeben wurde. Darüber hinaus wurde ein Wortschatztest eingesetzt und der familiäre Sprachhintergrund der Kinder erhoben. Als wichtigsten Befund ergab eine Mehrebenenanalyse eine signifikante Interaktion von Testbedingung und den sprachlichen Kompetenzen: Kinder mit vergleichsweise geringem Wortschatz erzielten in der Zuhören-und-Mitlesen-Bedingung höhere Werte in einem Test zum metakognitiven Wissen als in der Zuhören-Bedingung, wohingegen sich bei Kindern mit größerem Wortschatz kein Unterschied zwischen den Testbedingungen ergab. Ein entsprechendes Befundmuster zeigte sich, wenn anstatt des Wortschatzes der Sprachhintergrund berücksichtigt wurde. Somit sprechen die Ergebnisse dafür, dass Kinder mit geringeren Sprachkompetenzen von der Möglichkeit profitieren, die Aufgabentexte mitzulesen. Folglich erhöht die Zuhören-und-Mitlesen-Bedingung die Validität der Testung, was mit Blick auf die theoretischen und diagnostischen Implikationen diskutiert wird.

The Effect of Colored Overlays on Reading Fluency in Individuals with Dyslexia

Colored overlays, one type of tinted filter, are plastic reading sheets tinted with color and placed over text to eliminate or alleviate a wide range of reading difficulties such as low reading rate, accuracy, and comprehension. The effects of colored overlays on reading problems associated with dyslexia were investigated in this study via a multielement design. Reading fluency was assessed when participants read with and without colored overlays. Undifferentiated responding, or decreased accuracy, resulted across three participants, suggesting that colored overlays were ineffective and potentially detrimental to participants' reading abilities. As a result, empirically validated reading techniques were implemented across individuals. These findings are discussed and recommendations are made in regards to the use of research-based reading interventions.

REFINING THE EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF ACADEMIC SKILLS DEFICITS: PART II. USE OF BRIEF EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS TO EVALUATE READING FLUENCY TREATMENTS

The technology of brief experimental analysis is just beginning to be used for identification of effective treatments for individual students who experience difficulty with oral reading fluency. In this study, the effect of a reading fluency treatment package was examined on easy and hard passages, and generalization was assessed on passages with high content overlap. The results suggest that the treatment package increased reading fluency for all 3 students. Effects were moderated by difficulty level for all 3 students. Results are discussed in terms of future refinements to the procedures, validation of the methods, and potential applications in clinical and school settings.

Verbalizações de familiares durante aprendizagem de leitura e escrita por deficientes intelectuais¹

A utilização de um programa informatizado de ensino de leitura e escrita, aplicado por pais e familiares, permitiu analisar as verbalizações fornecidas pelos aplicadores, a fim de auxiliar os aprendizes nas tarefas de ensino. Embora tais verbalizações tenham sido identificadas em estudos anteriores, a presente pesquisa objetivou categorizar e quantificar os tipos de dicas verbais fornecidas pelos familiares na condição de monitores, em razão da falta de sistematização das mesmas. Participaram do estudo três responsáveis por três aprendizes com deficiência intelectual, expostos ao programa em suas residências. O procedimento constituiu na categorização e quantificação das dicas verbais emitidas pelos monitores. Como resultado, foram estabelecidas duas categorias de dicas: adequadas (Fornecer a instrução da tarefa e Elogiar) e inadequadas (Apontar erros na resposta do aprendiz e Responder pelo aprendiz). Sugere-se que seja adotada a categoria de dicas adequadas em treinamentos futuros de monitores, a fim de favorecer a interação inicial entre o aprendiz e o programa.

A comparison of two flash-card methods for improving sight-word reading

Flash cards have been shown to be useful for teaching sight-word reading. To date, the most effective flash-card instruction method is incremental rehearsal (IR). This method involves the instructor interspersing unknown stimulus items into the presentation of known stimulus items. In this study, we compared IR to a modified IR procedure-strategic incremental rehearsal (SIR)-to determine whether the effects of IR might be improved by incorporating variables likely to increase word acquisition. These included increased opportunities to respond to unknown stimuli, using learner responding as a basis for changing instructional items, and systematic prompting methods. An A-B-A-B design was used to compare the effects of IR and SIR for increasing sight-word reading with 4 elementary school students. Results indicated that students read more words correctly with SIR than with IR. In addition, similar patterns of responding were seen at a 2-week follow-up.

A synthesis of read-aloud interventions on early reading outcomes among preschool through third graders at risk for reading difficulties

A synthesis and meta-analysis of the extant research on the effects of storybook read-aloud interventions for children at risk for reading difficulties ages 3 to 8 is provided. A total of 29 studies met criteria for the synthesis, with 18 studies providing sufficient data for inclusion in the meta-analysis. Read-aloud instruction has been examined using dialogic reading; repeated reading of stories; story reading with limited questioning before, during, and/or after reading; computer-assisted story reading; and story reading with extended vocabulary activities. Significant, positive effects on children's language, phonological awareness, print concepts, comprehension, and vocabulary outcomes were found. Despite the positive effects for read-aloud interventions, only a small amount of outcome variance was accounted for by intervention type.

Three versus six rereadings of practice passages

Although the literature clearly demonstrates that repeated readings result in immediate effects on students' performance on the intervention materials as well as long-term benefits, data are less promising regarding its immediate generalization effects to similar materials. Using an alternating treatments design, the current study evaluated the effects of a multicomponent repeated reading intervention on generalization passages after students had read a passage three versus six times. Results indicated improvements in fluency as a result of both interventions, with slightly greater maintenance effects when students were given six opportunities to read passages.

Reading interventions for struggling readers in the upper elementary grades: a synthesis of 20 years of research

A synthesis of the extant research on reading interventions for students with reading difficulties and disabilities in fourth and fifth grade (ages 9-11) is presented. Thirteen studies with treatment/comparison study designs and eleven single group or single subject studies were located and synthesized. Findings from the 24 studies revealed high effects for comprehension interventions on researcher-developed comprehension measures. Word recognition interventions yielded small to moderate effects on a range of reading outcomes. Few studies were located implementing vocabulary and multi-component interventions.

Brief experimental analysis of early reading interventions

The purpose of this study was to investigate how brief experimental analyses (BEAs) could be used to identify effective interventions for Kindergartners (2 girls and 2 boys, 5 years and 7-10 months old) with low performance and/or growth slope in letter sound fluency (LSF). Interventions were tested within a multielement design with brief mini-reversals until an intervention yielding at least 20% improvement ona specific subskill measure or a curriculum-based measure of LSF was identified. BEA-identified interventions were implemented one-on-one for 5 to 9 weeks. A multiple-baseline design across participants showed large intervention effects (average adjusted d=2.4) on general outcome measures, supporting treatment validity of BEAs. Findings extend the BEA literature to younger participants, early reading interventions, and early reading measures.

A Synthesis of Reading Interventions and Effects on Reading Comprehension Outcomes for Older Struggling Readers

This article reports a synthesis of intervention studies conducted between 1994 and 2004 with older students (Grades 6-12) with reading difficulties. Interventions addressing decoding, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension were included if they measured the effects on reading comprehension. Twenty-nine studies were located and synthesized. Thirteen studies met criteria for a meta-analysis, yielding an effect size (ES) of 0.89 for the weighted average of the difference in comprehension outcomes between treatment and comparison students. Word-level interventions were associated with ES = 0.34 in comprehension outcomes between treatment and comparison students. Implications for comprehension instruction for older struggling readers are described.

A synthesis of fluency interventions for secondary struggling readers

Previous research studies examining the effects of fluency interventions on the fluency and comprehension outcomes for secondary struggling readers are synthesized. An extensive search of the professional literature between 1980 and 2005 yielded a total of 19 intervention studies that provided fluency interventions to secondary struggling readers and measured comprehension and/or fluency outcomes. Findings revealed fluency outcomes were consistently improved following interventions that included listening passage previewing such as listening to an audiotape or adult model of good reading before attempting to read a passage. In addition, there is preliminary evidence that there may be no differential effects between repeated reading interventions and the same amount of non-repetitive reading with older struggling readers for increasing reading speed, word recognition, and comprehension.

Improving reading outcomes for children with learning disabilities: using brief experimental analysis to develop parent-tutoring interventions

The present study assessed the effects of summer parent tutoring on 3 children with learning disabilities using empirically derived reading interventions. Brief experimental analyses were used to identify customized reading fluency interventions. Parents were trained to use the intervention strategies with their children. Parents implemented the procedures during parent-tutoring sessions at home and results were measured continuously in high-word-overlap and low-word-overlap passages to determine whether generalization occurred. Parent and child satisfaction with the procedures was assessed. Results demonstrated generalized increases in reading fluency in both high-word-overlap and low-word-overlap passages as a function of parent tutoring. Also, acceptability ratings by children and their parents indicated that they viewed the interventions as acceptable and effective. Results are discussed in terms of structuring reading fluency interventions that promote generalization and maintenance of treatment effects.

Refining the experimental analysis of academic skills deficits: Part I. An investigation of variables that affect generalized oral reading performance

Experimental analyses for improving reading fluency deficits have rarely targeted generalized increases in academic responding. As a consequence, the variables that may help students to generalize newly learned forms of academic responding like reading are not well understood. Furthermore, experimental analyses of reading fluency interventions have not systematically examined difficulty level as a variable that may affect instructional outcomes. The experiment reported in this paper expands (a) the measurement of the dependent variables to include generalized increases across tasks (reading passages) and (b) the combination of independent variables used to produce measurable generalized increases. The results demonstrate the importance of combining reward and instructional variables (including difficulty level) to produce generalized increases and how those variables can be meaningfully investigated prior to making treatment recommendations.

A rapid assessment of skills in young children with autism

Educational interventions based on the principles of behavior analysis are highly effective for establishing skills in young children with autism. As a first step in program development, the child's current skill level is determined by evaluating performance on tasks drawn from a preestablished curriculum. However, few specific guidelines have been delineated for conducting these skills assessments or interpreting the results. In this study, we evaluated an efficient methodology for conducting skills assessments. Six children who had been diagnosed with autism participated. The relative efficacy of two assessment packages--one containing several reinforcement procedures and one containing several potentially effective prompts--was evaluated across two to three skills for each child using multiple baseline and reversal designs. Results suggested that the methodology was useful for matching targeted skills to appropriate interventions.

A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities

Fluent reading, often defined as speed and accuracy, is an important skill for all readers to develop. Students with learning disabilities (LD) often struggle to read fluently, leading to difficulties in reading comprehension. Despite recent attention to reading fluency and ways to improve fluency, it is not clear which features of interventions that are designed to enhance fluency are beneficial for the most struggling readers. The purpose of this study is to synthesize research on interventions that are designed primarily to build reading fluency for students with LD. The search yielded 24 published and unpublished studies that reported findings on intervention features, including repeated reading with and without a model, sustained reading, number of repetitions, text difficulty, and specific improvement criteria. Our findings suggest that effective interventions for building fluency include an explicit model of fluent reading, multiple opportunities to repeatedly read familiar text independently and with corrective feedback, and established performance criteria for increasing text difficulty.

Stimulus characteristics within directives: effects on accuracy of task completion

Three experiments were conducted in an outpatient setting with young children who had been referred for treatment of noncompliant behavior and who had coexisting receptive language or receptive vocabulary difficulties. Experiment 1 studied differential responding of the participants to a brief hierarchical directive analysis (least-to-most complex stimulus prompts) to identify directives that functioned as discriminative stimuli for accurate responding. Experiment 1 identified distinct patterns of accurate responding relative to manipulation of directive stimulus characteristics. Experiment 2 demonstrated that directives identified as effective or ineffective in obtaining stimulus control of accurate responding during Experiment 1 continued to control accurate responding across play activities and academic tasks. Experiment 3 probed effects of the interaction between the type of directive (effective vs. ineffective) and the reinforcement contingency (differential reinforcement for attempts vs. differential reinforcement for accurate responses) on accurate task completion and disruptive behavior. Results suggested that behavioral escalation from inaccurate responding to disruptive behavior occurred only when ineffective directives were combined with differential reinforcement for accurate task completion. The overall results are discussed in terms of developing a methodology for identifying stimulus characteristics of directives that affect accurate responding.