Rosuvastatin Decreases Intestinal Fatty Acid Binding Protein (I-FABP), but Does Not Alter Zonulin or Lipopolysaccharide Binding Protein (LBP) Levels, in HIV-Infected Subjects on Antiretroviral Therapy

Intestinal fatty acid binding protein is associated with coronary artery disease in long-term type 1 diabetes-the Dialong study

BACKGROUND

Individuals with type 1 diabetes are at increased risk of accelerated atherosclerosis, causing coronary artery disease (CAD). The underlying mechanisms remain unclear, but new theories proposed are damage of gut mucosa causing leakage and translocation of gut microbiota products into the circulation, leading to inflammatory responses and atherosclerosis. We therefore aimed to study the associations between gut related inflammatory biomarkers and coronary atherosclerosis in individuals with long-term type 1 diabetes.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional, controlled study of 102 participants with type 1 diabetes and 63 control subjects, we measured circulating levels of intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP), soluble cluster of differentiation 14 (sCD14), lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) and interleukin 18 (IL-18) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and further gene expression of CD14 and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) by real time PCR in circulating leukocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The participants had either established coronary heart disease (CHD) or underwent computed tomography coronary angiography (CTCA) to assess for coronary atherosclerosis, including total, calcified and soft/mixed plaque volumes.

RESULTS

In the diabetes group, the levels of I-FABP were significantly higher in participants with established CHD or significant stenosis on CTCA compared to the participants with normal arteries or non-significant stenosis, with median 1.67 ng/ml (interquartile range [IQR] 1.02-2.32) vs. median 1.09 ng/ml (IQR 0.82-1.58), p = 0.003. I-FABP was associated with significant coronary artery stenosis by CTCA (> 50%) or previously established CHD in the adjusted analysis (odds ratio [OR] = 2.32, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.09-4.95; p = 0.029). The levels of I-FABP correlated also to total coronary plaque volume (r = 0.22, p < 0.05). This association remained significant after adjusting for age, sex, persistent albuminuria, eGFR, statin treatment, diabetes duration and mean time-weighted variables; HbA1c, LDL-cholesterol and systolic blood pressure (OR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.28-3.01; p = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort of individuals with long-term type 1 diabetes I-FABP associated significantly with coronary artery stenosis, suggesting a potential role of gut mucosa damage in the process of atherosclerosis in type 1 diabetes.

Association between tight junction proteins and cognitive performance in untreated persons with HIV

BACKGROUND

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) still affects persons with HIV (PWH) and their pathogenesis is not completely understood. We aimed to explore the association between plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) markers of blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment and HAND in untreated PWH.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

We enrolled untreated PWH, who underwent blood examinations and lumbar puncture to measure inflammation (IL-15, TNF-α), BBB damage (zonulin and tight junction proteins, tight junction proteins: occludin, claudin-5) and endothelial adhesion molecules (VCAM-1, ICAM-1). A comprehensive neurocognitive battery was used to diagnose HAND (Frascati criteria).

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients (21/78, 26.9%) patients presented HAND (100% ANI). HAND patients displayed more frequently non-CNS AIDS-defining conditions, lower nadir CD4 + T cells and increased CD4 + T-cell exhaustion (lower CD4 + CD127 + and CD4 + CD45RA + T-cell percentages), in comparison to individuals without cognitive impairment. Furthermore, HAND was characterized by higher plasma inflammation (IL-15) but lower CSF levels of biomarkers of BBB impairment (zonulin and occludin). The association between BBB damage with HAND was confirmed by fitting a multivariable logistic regression. CSF/plasma endothelial adhesion molecules were not associated with HAND but with a poor performance in different cognitive domains.

CONCLUSION

By showing heightened inflammation and BBB impairment, our study suggests loss of BBB integrity as a possible factor contributing to the development of HAND in untreated PWH.

Menopause and Estrogen Associations With Gut Barrier, Microbial Translocation, and Immune Activation Biomarkers in Women With and Without HIV

OBJECTIVES

Estrogens may protect the gut barrier and reduce microbial translocation and immune activation, which are prevalent in HIV infection. We investigated relationships of the menopausal transition and estrogens with gut barrier, microbial translocation, and immune activation biomarkers in women with and without HIV.

DESIGN

Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies nested in the Women's Interagency HIV Study.

METHODS

Intestinal fatty acid binding protein, lipopolysaccharide binding protein, and soluble CD14 (sCD14) levels were measured in serum from 77 women (43 with HIV) before, during, and after the menopausal transition (∼6 measures per woman over ∼13 years). A separate cross-sectional analysis was conducted among 72 postmenopausal women with HIV with these biomarkers and serum estrogens.

RESULTS

Women in the longitudinal analysis were a median age of 43 years at baseline. In piecewise, linear, mixed-effects models with cutpoints 2 years before and after the final menstrual period to delineate the menopausal transition, sCD14 levels increased over time during the menopausal transition (Beta [95% CI]: 38 [12 to 64] ng/mL/yr, P = 0.004), followed by a decrease posttransition (-46 [-75 to -18], P = 0.001), with the piecewise model providing a better fit than a linear model (P = 0.0006). In stratified analyses, these results were only apparent in women with HIV. In cross-sectional analyses, among women with HIV, free estradiol inversely correlated with sCD14 levels (r = -0.26, P = 0.03). Lipopolysaccharide binding protein and intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels did not appear related to the menopausal transition and estrogen levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with HIV may experience heightened innate immune activation during menopause, possibly related to the depletion of estrogens.

Serological markers of intestinal barrier impairment do not correlate with duration of diabetes and glycated hemoglobin in adult patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Growing evidence suggests that diabetes mellitus is associated with impairment of the intestinal barrier. However, it is not clear so far if the impairment of the intestinal barrier is a consequence of prolonged hyperglycemia or the consequence of external factors influencing the gut microbiota and intestinal mucosa integrity. Aim of the study was to perform an estimation of relationship between serological markers of impairment of the intestinal barrier: intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP), cytokeratin 18 caspase-cleaved fragment (cCK-18), and soluble CD14 (sCD14) and markers of prolonged hyperglycemia, such as the duration of diabetes mellitus and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) via a correlation analysis in patients with diabetes mellitus. In 40 adult patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and 30 adult patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus the estimation has been performed. Statistically significant positive correlation was found between cCK-18 and HbA1c (r=0.5047, p=0.0275) in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus with fading insulitis (T1D). In patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus with ongoing insulitis (T1D/INS) and in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), no statistically significant positive correlations were found between serological markers of intestinal barrier impairment (I-FABP, cCK-18, sCD14) and duration of diabetes or levels of HbA1c. Similarly, in cumulative cohort of patients with T1D/INS and patients with T1D we revealed statistically positive correlation only between HbA1c and cCK-18 (r=0.3414, p=0.0311). Surprisingly, we found statistically significant negative correlation between the duration of diabetes mellitus and cCK-18 (r=-0.3050, p=0.0313) only in cumulative group of diabetic patients (T1D, T1D/INS, and T2D). Based on our results, we hypothesize that the actual condition of the intestinal barrier in diabetic patients is much more dependent on variable interactions between host genetic factors, gut microbiota, and environmental factors rather than effects of long-standing hyperglycemia (assessed by duration of diabetes mellitus or HbA1c).

Brief Report: Dipyridamole Decreases Gut Mucosal Regulatory T-Cell Frequencies Among People With HIV on Antiretroviral Therapy

BACKGROUND

We had previously conducted a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled, partial cross-over trial showing that 12 weeks of dipyridamole decreased CD8 T-cell activation among treated HIV(+) individuals by increasing extracellular adenosine levels.

METHODS

In this substudy, rectosigmoid biopsies were obtained from 18 participants (9 per arm), to determine whether 12 weeks of dipyridamole affects mucosal immune cells. Participants randomized to placebo were then switched to dipyridamole for 12 weeks while the treatment arm continued dipyridamole for another 12 weeks. We evaluated T-cell frequencies and plasma markers of microbial translocation and intestinal epithelial integrity. Linear regression models on log-transformed outcomes were used for the primary 12-week analysis.

RESULTS

Participants receiving dipyridamole had a median 70.2% decrease from baseline in regulatory T cells (P = 0.007) and an 11.3% increase in CD8 T cells (P = 0.05). There was a nonsignificant 10.80% decrease in plasma intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels in the dipyridamole arm compared with a 9.51% increase in the placebo arm. There were no significant differences in plasma levels of β-D-glucan. In pooled analyses, there continued to be a significant decrease in regulatory T cells (-44%; P = 0.004). There was also a trend for decreased CD4 and CD8 T-cell activation.

CONCLUSION

Increasing extracellular adenosine levels using dipyridamole in virally suppressed HIV (+) individuals on antiretroviral therapy can affect regulation of gut mucosal immunity.

Endothelial activation is associated with intestinal epithelial injury, systemic inflammation and treatment regimen in children living with vertically acquired HIV-1 infection

BACKGROUND

Premature development of cardiovascular disease in children living with HIV-1 (CLWH) may be associated with compromised gut barrier function, microbial translocation, immune activation, systemic inflammation and endothelial activation. Biomarkers of these pathways may provide insights into pathogenesis of atherosclerotic disease in CLWH.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study of CLWH enrolled in the multicentre Early Pediatric Initiation-Canadian Child Cure Cohort (EPIC⁴ ) who were on antiretroviral therapy (ART) with undetectable viral load. Plasma biomarkers of intestinal epithelial injury [intestinal fatty acid binding protein-1 (IFABP)], systemic inflammation [tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] and endothelial activation [angiopoietin-2 (Ang2), soluble vascular endothelial growth factor-1 (sVEGFR1) and soluble endoglin (sEng)] were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Correlation and factor analysis of biomarkers were used to examine associations between innate immune pathways.

RESULTS

Among 90 CLWH, 16% of Ang2, 15% of sVEGFR1 and 23% of sEng levels were elevated relative to healthy historic controls. Pairwise rank correlations between the three markers of endothelial activation were statistically significant (ρ = 0.69, ρ = 0.61 and ρ = 0.65, P < 0.001 for all correlations). An endothelial activation index, derived by factor analysis of the three endothelial biomarkers, was correlated with TNF (ρ = 0.47, P < 0.001), IL-6 (ρ = 0.60, P < 0.001) and intestinal fatty acid binding protein-1 (ρ = 0.67, P < 0.001). Current or past treatment with ritonavir-boosted lopinavir (LPV/r) was associated with endothelial activation (odds ratio = 5.0, 95% CI: 1.7-17, P = 0.0020).

CONCLUSIONS

Endothelial activation is prevalent in CLWH despite viral suppression with combination ART and is associated with intestinal epithelial injury, systemic inflammation and treatment with LPV/r.

Biomarkers of Activation and Inflammation to Track Disparity in Chronological and Physiological Age of People Living With HIV on Combination Antiretroviral Therapy

With advancement, prompt use, and increasing accessibility of antiretroviral therapy, people with HIV are living longer and have comparable lifespans to those negative for HIV. However, people living with HIV experience tradeoffs with quality of life often developing age-associated co-morbid conditions such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, or neurodegeneration due to chronic immune activation and inflammation. This creates a discrepancy in chronological and physiological age, with HIV-infected individuals appearing older than they are, and in some contexts ART-associated toxicity exacerbates this gap. The complexity of the accelerated aging process in the context of HIV-infection highlights the need for greater understanding of biomarkers involved. In this review, we discuss markers identified in different anatomical sites of the body including periphery, brain, and gut, as well as markers related to DNA that may serve as reliable predictors of accelerated aging in HIV infected individuals as it relates to inflammatory state and immune activation.

All disease begins in the (leaky) gut: role of zonulin-mediated gut permeability in the pathogenesis of some chronic inflammatory diseases

Improved hygiene leading to reduced exposure to microorganisms has been implicated as one possible cause for the recent "epidemic" of chronic inflammatory diseases (CIDs) in industrialized countries. That is the essence of the hygiene hypothesis that argues that rising incidence of CIDs may be, at least in part, the result of lifestyle and environmental changes that have made us too "clean" for our own good, so causing changes in our microbiota. Apart from genetic makeup and exposure to environmental triggers, inappropriate increase in intestinal permeability (which may be influenced by the composition of the gut microbiota), a "hyper-belligerent" immune system responsible for the tolerance-immune response balance, and the composition of gut microbiome and its epigenetic influence on the host genomic expression have been identified as three additional elements in causing CIDs. During the past decade, a growing number of publications have focused on human genetics, the gut microbiome, and proteomics, suggesting that loss of mucosal barrier function, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract, may substantially affect antigen trafficking, ultimately influencing the close bidirectional interaction between gut microbiome and our immune system. This cross-talk is highly influential in shaping the host gut immune system function and ultimately shifting genetic predisposition to clinical outcome. This observation led to a re-visitation of the possible causes of CIDs epidemics, suggesting a key pathogenic role of gut permeability. Pre-clinical and clinical studies have shown that the zonulin family, a group of proteins modulating gut permeability, is implicated in a variety of CIDs, including autoimmune, infective, metabolic, and tumoral diseases. These data offer novel therapeutic targets for a variety of CIDs in which the zonulin pathway is implicated in their pathogenesis.

Brief Report: Zinc Supplementation and Inflammation in Treated HIV

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we explored the effect of zinc supplementation on markers of inflammation and monocyte activation in antiretroviral therapy-treated HIV infection.

METHODS

This is a phase I open-labeled randomized double-arm study, exploring the efficacy and safety of zinc supplementation on inflammation in ≥18-year-old people living with HIV in the US, on stable antiretroviral therapy and with zinc levels ≤75 µg/dL in the last 60 days. Patients were randomized 1:1 to zinc gluconate capsules at a dose of 45 mg (low-dose), or 90 mg (high-dose) elemental zinc daily for 16 weeks. We assessed inflammatory and gut integrity biomarkers at baseline and 16 weeks.

RESULTS

Overall, a total of 52 participants were enrolled (25 participants in the low-dose arm and 27 participants in the high-dose arm). Median (Interquartile range) age was 49 (38, 60) years, 77% were men and 73% were African Americans. At baseline, median zinc levels were 73 (64, 86) µg/dL. Median circulating zinc levels increased to 91 µg/dL in the low-dose arm and to 100 µg/dL in the high-dose arm. Overall, 48%-60% of participants experienced a reduction in biomarkers levels. The margin of reduction ranged between 8% and 21%. This change was meaningful with large effect size (Cohen D ranging from 5 to 19).

CONCLUSIONS

In this pilot study, we found that zinc supplementation is effective at increasing circulating zinc levels. In addition, our findings provide novel data suggesting that zinc can affect a biological signature in people living with HIV and modulate biomarkers associated with clinical comorbidities.

I-FABP Is Higher in People With Chronic HIV Than Elite Controllers, Related to Sugar and Fatty Acid Intake and Inversely Related to Body Fat in People With HIV

Background

Intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP) has been shown to be a marker of intestinal damage among people living with HIV. We hypothesized that I-FABP would be increased in chronically HIV-infected patents more than elite controllers and would relate to specific nutrient intake and body composition.

Methods

In an observational study, serum I-FABP was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Anthropometric measurements, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, and single-slice abdominal computed tomography were obtained to assess body composition, as well as visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue areas (VAT and SAT). Dietary intake was assessed using 4-day food records.

Results

One hundred forty-nine people with chronic HIV (65% male, 47 ± 7 years of age, 54.7% white, and 14 ± 6 years of known HIV), 10 elite controllers (60% male, 53 ± 8 years, 60% white, and 20 ± 7 years of known HIV), and 69 HIV-negative controls (59.4% male, 46 ± 7 years, and 52.2% white) were included in the analysis. I-FABP was significantly higher in HIV progressors relative to HIV-negative controls and elite controllers. In the chronic HIV group, I-FABP was positively associated with dietary intake of added sugar and with saturated fatty acids. I-FABP was inversely associated with body mass index, VAT, and SAT. I-FABP also correlated with MCP-1, CXCL10, sCD163, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) among all participants.

Conclusions

I-FABP was increased among chronically HIV-infected patients to a greater degree than in elite controllers and was related to nutrient intake and body composition in HIV progressors. Future studies to investigate the role of intestinal damage on nutrient absorption are needed to elucidate the mechanisms of these relationships.

Trial Registration Identifier

NCT00455793.

Benefits and Risks of Statin Therapy in the HIV-Infected Population

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

HIV-infected patients face an increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD), estimated at 1.5- to 2-fold as compared to HIV-uninfected persons. This review provides a recent (within preceding 5 years) summary of the role of statin therapy and associated role in CVD risk reduction among HIV-infected patients on anti-retroviral therapy.

RECENT FINDINGS

Statins remain the preferred agents for reducing risk for CVD among HIV-infected populations based on guidance extrapolated from general population (HIV-uninfected) cholesterol treatment guidelines across different settings globally. However, HIV-infected patients are consistently under prescribed statin therapy when compared to their HIV-uninfected counterparts. The most commonly studied statins in clinical care and small randomized and cohort studies have been rosuvastatin and atorvastatin. Both agents are preferred for their potent lipid-lowering effects and their favorable or neutral pleotropic effects on chronic inflammation, renal function, and hepatic steatosis among others. However, growing experience with the newer glucuronidated pitavastatin suggests that this agent has virtually no adverse drug interactions with ART or effects on glucose metabolism-all marked additional benefits when compared with rosuvastatin and atorvastatin while maintaining comparable anti-lipid effects. Pitavastatin is therefore the statin of choice for the ongoing largest trial (6500 participants) to test the benefits of statin therapy among HIV-infected adults. Statins are underutilized in the prevention of CVD in HIV-infected populations based on criteria in established cholesterol guidelines. There is a potential role for statin therapy for HIV-infected patients who do not meet guideline criteria which will be further delineated through ongoing clinical trials.

Diffusion Basis Spectral Imaging Detects Ongoing Brain Inflammation in Virologically Well-Controlled HIV+ Patients

Inflammation occurs after HIV infection and persists, despite highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measures HIV-associated white matter changes, but can be confounded by inflammation. Currently, the influence of inflammation on white matter integrity in well-controlled HIV+ patients remains unknown. We used diffusion basis spectral imaging (DBSI)-derived cellularity to isolate restricted water diffusion associated with inflammation separated from the anisotropic diffusion associated with axonal integrity. Ninety-two virologically suppressed HIV+ patients on HAART and 66 HIV uninfected (HIV-) controls underwent neuropsychological performance (NP) testing and neuroimaging. NP tests assessed multiple domains (memory, psychomotor speed, and executive functioning). DTI- and DBSI-derived fractional anisotropy (FA) maps were processed with tract-based spatial statistics for comparison between both groups. Cellularity was assessed regarding age, HIV status, and NP. Within the HIV+ cohort, cellularity was compared with clinical (HAART duration) and laboratory measures of disease (eg, CD4 cell current and nadir). NP was similar for both groups. DTI-derived FA was lower in HIV+ compared with HIV- individuals. By contrast, DBSI-derived FA was similar for both groups. Instead, diffuse increases in cellularity were present in HIV+ individuals. Observed changes in cellularity were significantly associated with age, but not NP, in HIV+ individuals. A trend level association was seen between cellularity and HAART duration. Elevated inflammation, measured by cellularity, persists in virologically well-controlled HIV+ individuals. Widespread cellularity changes occur in younger HIV+ individuals and diminish with aging and duration of HAART.

Beneficial Effect of Alcohol Withdrawal on Gut Permeability and Microbial Translocation in Patients with Alcohol Use Disorder

BACKGROUND

The human intestinal microbiota exerts beneficial or harmful effects in several disorders. Many factors, including alcohol consumption, may influence its composition and trigger bacterial translocation. Excessive alcohol consumption increases gut permeability and translocation of endotoxin into peripheral circulation. Although plasma endotoxin concentrations have been measured often, quantitative changes following alcohol withdrawal have never been described in subjects with alcohol use disorder (AUD). The aim of this study was to measure microbial translocation (MT) and gut permeability markers in patients with AUD, to compare these markers to healthy controls (HC) and to monitor markers during the first 6 weeks of abstinence.

METHODS

Sixty-five patients with AUD and hospitalized for alcohol withdrawal were included. Epidemiological, clinical, biological, and addictological data were gathered. Blood samples were collected at baseline, then 3 and 6 weeks after alcohol withdrawal. A hundred healthy volunteers were used as controls. Three markers of MT were monitored in plasma samples: sCD14 and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) were quantified using ELISA, and 16S rDNA was quantified using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Zonulin and intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP) blood levels were also monitored as indirect markers of gut permeability, using ELISA.

RESULTS

At baseline, LBP, 16S rDNA, sCD14 and I-FABP markers were significantly higher in patients with AUD than in HC. Six weeks after alcohol withdrawal plasma levels of sCD14 and LBP decreased significantly. Cannabis consumption and body mass index (BMI) before alcohol withdrawal influenced baseline MT levels and the decrease in MT markers after 6 weeks. Finally, markers of MT and gut permeability did not correlate with each other before and after alcohol withdrawal.

CONCLUSIONS

Before alcohol withdrawal, MT markers were higher in patients with AUD than in HC. After 6 weeks of abstinence, an improvement in MT markers was observed. Our data suggest that there is a link between MT, its improvement, BMI, and cannabis consumption.

Coronary Artery Disease in HIV-Infected Patients: Downside of Living Longer

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Introduction of combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) has increased the life expectancy of patients with HIV infection, allowing them to live longer with this chronic medical condition and consequently experiencing conditions such as cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Several studies have investigated the increased risk of CVD in people living with HIV (PLWH). However, less is known about the exact mechanisms involved in this increased risk. Also, specific guidelines for management of CVD in PLWH have not been developed yet. In this article, we review the recent literature on the mechanisms involved in pathogenesis of CVD in PLWH, with an emphasis on coronary artery disease (CAD).

RECENT FINDINGS

Although initial studies suspected the increased prevalence of traditional CVD risk factors and side effects of ART to be involved in the increased CVD risk in PLWH, recent studies have uncovered the important role of chronic persistent inflammation in this increased risk. In addition, biomarkers of inflammation have been associated with both CVD events and subclinical CAD in this population. Lastly, recent studies and ongoing clinical trials have been investigating medical interventions that aim to reduce inflammation and cardiovascular events. Different mechanisms of inflammation have been examined in PLWH, including subclinical viremia, microbial translocation, and coinfection with other pathogens such as cytomegalovirus. Although inflammatory biomarkers have been consistently associated with CVD and subclinical CVD outcomes, their prognostic value is unknown. Recent and ongoing trials are exploring the benefits of anti-inflammatory drugs, statins, and antimicrobial translocation drugs on both inflammation and CVD risk among PLWH.

Alcohol and dietary factors associate with gut integrity and inflammation in HIV-infected adults

OBJECTIVES

HIV-infected adults have heightened monocyte activation and inflammation, at least partially as a consequence of altered gut integrity. The role of dietary factors in microbial translocation and inflammation and their downstream effect on markers of cardiovascular disease (CVD) have not been explored. Our purpose was to describe the longitudinal dietary patterns of HIV-infected adults, and to examine the relationship between dietary intake, gut integrity, inflammation and subclinical markers of CVD in HIV-infected adults.

METHODS

We conducted a secondary analysis of 147 HIV-infected participants in a 96-week randomized clinical trial of rosuvastatin as primary CVD prevention. Dietary intake was assessed using dietary recall; plasma gut integrity, monocyte activation and inflammation markers were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); and CVD risk was assessed using carotid ultrasound and the coronary artery calcium score. Linear mixed models were used to analyse longitudinally measured biomarkers.

RESULTS

The median age was 45 years and 78% of patients were male. At baseline, participants consumed a mean (standard deviation) of 108 (70) g of fat daily, 19 (15.6) g of fibre, 266 (186) g of carbohydrates and 15.6 (5.9) g of protein; 45% of the sample consumed alcohol. Over time, alcohol consumption was associated with several markers of gut integrity and inflammation (all P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

HIV-infected adults in a contemporary, high-resource setting have poor dietary patterns. Alcohol use was associated with worse gut integrity and increased inflammation, while other aspects of diet (fibre, carbohydrates and fat) were not. These data add to growing evidence illustrating the need for a better understanding of the effect of lifestyle factors on comorbidities in HIV-infected adults.

Strategies to limit immune-activation in HIV patients

INTRODUCTION

Antiretroviral treatment of HIV infection reduces, but does not eliminate, viral replication and down modulates immune activation. The persistence of low level HIV replication in the host, nevertheless, drives a smouldering degree of immune activation that is observed throughout the natural history of disease and is the main driving force sustaining morbidity and mortality. Areas covered: Early start of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and intensive management of behavioural risk factors are possible but, at best, marginally successful ways to manage immune activation. We review alternative, possible strategies to reduce immune activation in HIV infection including timing of ART initiation and ART intensification to reduce HIV residual viremia; switch of ART to newer molecules with reduced toxicity; use of anti inflammatory/immunomodulatory agents and, finally, interventions aimed at modifying the composition of the microbiota. Expert commentary: Current therapeutic strategies to limit immune activation are only marginally successful. Because HIV eradication is currently impossible, intensive studies are needed to determine if and how immune activation can be silenced in HIV infection.