RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis of gene expression provides new insights into hindlimb unloading-induced skeletal muscle atrophy

Sequencing technology in sarcopenia: current research progress and future trends

Background

Muscle is an important tissue of the human body. Muscle atrophy is common in people of all ages, which will lead to human weakness and decline of motor function, which is one of the important causes of disability. The common methods of genomics research are transcriptome, proteomics and metabolomics, which are important means to explore the molecular pathology of diseases. In recent years, combinatorial research has been carried out on a large scale in the field of muscle atrophy. However, no author in this field has carried out bibliometrics and visual analysis.

Methods

In this study, articles related to the histological study of muscular dystrophy since 2000 were searched from the Web of Science core database (WoSCC). We will retrieve the results through CiteSpace, VosViewer and R for data statistics and visual analysis.

Results

In this study, a total of 141 publications were collected, and the number of publications increased year by year. These 141 articles came from 1031 co-authors from 361 institutions in 31 countries and were published in 92 journals. A total of 6286 articles from 1383 journals were cited. Authors from American institutions have published the most articles and have been cited the most, and authors from other countries have also made considerable contributions.

Conclusion

This is the first bibliometric and visual analysis of published research in the field of muscular dystrophy through systematic data retrieval and combined with a variety of bibliometric analysis tools. Through these data, we summarize the previous studies of scholars, and provide prospects for future research in the field.

Celecoxib attenuates hindlimb unloading-induced muscle atrophy via suppressing inflammation, oxidative stress and ER stress by inhibiting STAT3

Improving inflammation may serve as useful therapeutic interventions for the hindlimb unloading-induced disuse muscle atrophy. Celecoxib is a selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug. We aimed to determine the role and mechanism of celecoxib in hindlimb unloading-induced disuse muscle atrophy. Celecoxib significantly attenuated the decrease in soleus muscle mass, hindlimb muscle function and the shift from slow- to fast-twitch muscle fibers caused by hindlimb unloading in rats. Importantly, celecoxib inhibited the increased expression of inflammatory factors, macrophage infiltration in damaged soleus muscle. Mechanistically, Celecoxib could significantly reduce oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress in soleus muscle of unloaded rats. Furthermore, celecoxib inhibited muscle proteolysis by reducing the levels of MAFbx, MuRF1, and autophagy related proteins maybe by inhibiting the activation of pro-inflammatory STAT3 pathway in vivo and in vitro. This study is the first to demonstrate that celecoxib can attenuate disuse muscle atrophy caused by hindlimb unloading via suppressing inflammation, oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress probably, improving target muscle function and reversing the shift of muscle fiber types by inhibiting STAT3 pathways-mediated inflammatory cascade. This study not only enriches the potential molecular regulatory mechanisms, but also provides new potential therapeutic targets for disuse muscle atrophy.

A non-invasive mouse model that recapitulates disuse-induced muscle atrophy in immobilized patients

Disuse muscle atrophy occurs consequent to prolonged limb immobility or bed rest, which represents an unmet medical need. As existing animal models of limb immobilization often cause skin erosion, edema, and other untoward effects, we here report an alternative method via thermoplastic immobilization of hindlimbs in mice. While significant decreases in the weight and fiber size were noted after 7 days of immobilization, no apparent skin erosion or edema was found. To shed light onto the molecular mechanism underlying this muscle wasting, we performed the next-generation sequencing analysis of gastrocnemius muscles from immobilized versus non-mobilized legs. Among a total of 55,487 genes analyzed, 787 genes were differentially expressed (> fourfold; 454 and 333 genes up- and down-regulated, respectively), which included genes associated with muscle tissue development, muscle system process, protein digestion and absorption, and inflammation-related signaling. From a clinical perspective, this model may help understand the molecular/cellular mechanism that drives muscle disuse and identify therapeutic strategies for this debilitating disease.

Biological sex divergence in transcriptomic profiles during the onset of hindlimb unloading-induced atrophy

Disuse-induced muscle atrophy is a common clinical problem observed mainly in older adults, intensive care units patients, or astronauts. Previous studies presented biological sex divergence in progression of disuse-induced atrophy along with differential changes in molecular mechanisms possibly underlying muscle atrophy. The aim of this study was to perform transcriptomic profiling of male and female mice during the onset and progression of unloading disuse-induced atrophy. Male and female mice underwent hindlimb unloading (HU) for 24, 48, 72, and 168 h (n = 8/group). Muscles were weighed for each cohort and gastrocnemius was used for RNA-sequencing analysis. Females exhibited muscle loss as early as 24 h of HU, whereas males after 168 h of HU. In males, pathways related to proteasome degradation were upregulated throughout 168 h of HU, whereas in females these pathways were upregulated up to 72 h of HU. Lcn2, a gene contributing to regulation of myogenesis, was upregulated by 6.46- to 19.86-fold across all time points in females only. A reverse expression of Fosb, a gene related to muscle degeneration, was observed between males (4.27-fold up) and females (4.57-fold down) at 24-h HU. Mitochondrial pathways related to tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle were highly downregulated at 168 h of HU in males, whereas in females this downregulation was less pronounced. Collagen-related pathways were consistently downregulated throughout 168 h of HU only in females, suggesting a potential biological sex-specific protective mechanism against disuse-induced fibrosis. In conclusion, females may have protection against HU-induced skeletal muscle mitochondrial degeneration and fibrosis through transcriptional mechanisms, although they may be more vulnerable to HU-induced muscle wasting compared with males.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Herein, we have assessed the transcriptomic response across biological sexes during the onset and progression of unloading disuse-induced atrophy in mice. We have demonstrated an inverse expression of Fosb between males and females, as well as differentially timed patterns of expressing atrophy-related pathways between sexes that are concomitant to the accelerated atrophy in females. We also identified in females signs of mechanisms to combat disuse-induced mitochondrial degeneration and fibrosis.

Oxidative stress: roles in skeletal muscle atrophy

Oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, reduced protein synthesis, and increased proteolysis are all critical factors in the process of muscle atrophy. In particular, oxidative stress is the key factor that triggers skeletal muscle atrophy. It is activated in the early stages of muscle atrophy and can be regulated by various factors. The mechanisms of oxidative stress in the development of muscle atrophy have not been completely elucidated. This review provides an overview of the sources of oxidative stress in skeletal muscle and the correlation of oxidative stress with inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, autophagy, protein synthesis, proteolysis, and muscle regeneration in muscle atrophy. Additionally, the role of oxidative stress in skeletal muscle atrophy caused by several pathological conditions, including denervation, unloading, chronic inflammatory diseases (diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, chronic heart failure, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), sarcopenia, hereditary neuromuscular diseases (spinal muscular atrophy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy), and cancer cachexia, have been discussed. Finally, this review proposes the alleviation oxidative stress using antioxidants, Chinese herbal extracts, stem cell and extracellular vesicles as a promising therapeutic strategy for muscle atrophy. This review will aid in the development of novel therapeutic strategies and drugs for muscle atrophy.

Myeloid cell infiltration in skeletal muscle after combined hindlimb unloading and radiation exposure in mice

The skeletal muscle and the immune system are heavily affected by the space environment. The crosstalk between these organs, although established, is not fully understood. This study determined the nature of immune cell changes in the murine skeletal muscle following (hindlimb) unloading combined with an acute session of irradiation (HLUR). Our findings show that 14 days of HLUR induces a significant increase of myeloid immune cell infiltration in skeletal muscle.

Up- and Downregulated Genes after Long-Term Muscle Atrophy Induced by Denervation in Mice Detected Using RNA-Seq

Skeletal muscle atrophy occurs rapidly as a result of inactivity. Although there are many reports on changes in gene expression during the early phase of muscle atrophy, the patterns of up-and downregulated gene expression after long-term and equilibrated muscle atrophy are poorly understood. In this study, we comprehensively examined the changes in gene expression in long-term denervated mouse muscles using RNA-Seq. The murine right sciatic nerve was denervated, and the mice were housed for five weeks. The cross-sectional areas of the hind limb muscles were measured using an X-ray CT system 35 days after denervation. After 28 d of denervation, the cross-sectional area of the muscle decreased to approximately 65% of that of the intact left muscle and reached a plateau. Gene expression in the soleus and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles on the 36th day was analyzed using RNA-Seq and validated using RT-qPCR. RNA-Seq analysis revealed that three genes-Adora1, E230016M11Rik, and Gm10718-were upregulated and one gene-Gm20515-was downregulated in the soleus muscle; additionally, four genes-Adora1, E230016M11Rik, Pigh, and Gm15557-were upregulated and one gene-Fzd7-was downregulated in the EDL muscle (FDR < 0.05). Among these genes, E230016M11Rik, one of the long non-coding RNAs, was significantly upregulated in both the muscles. These findings indicate that E230016M11Rik could be a candidate gene for the maintenance of atrophied skeletal muscle size and an atrophic state.

Chronic kidney disease-induced muscle atrophy: Molecular mechanisms and promising therapies

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a high-risk chronic catabolic disease due to its high morbidity and mortality. CKD is accompanied by many complications, leading to a poor quality of life, and serious complications may even threaten the life of CKD patients. Muscle atrophy is a common complication of CKD. Muscle atrophy and sarcopenia in CKD patients have complex pathways that are related to multiple mechanisms and related factors. This review not only discusses the mechanisms by which inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction promote CKD-induced muscle atrophy but also explores other CKD-related complications, such as metabolic acidosis, vitamin D deficiency, anorexia, and excess angiotensin II, as well as other related factors that play a role in CKD muscle atrophy, such as insulin resistance, hormones, hemodialysis, uremic toxins, intestinal flora imbalance, and miRNA. We highlight potential treatments and drugs that can effectively treat CKD-induced muscle atrophy in terms of complication treatment, nutritional supplementation, physical exercise, and drug intervention, thereby helping to improve the prognosis and quality of life of CKD patients.

Induction of ATF4-Regulated Atrogenes Is Uncoupled from Muscle Atrophy during Disuse in Halofuginone-Treated Mice and in Hibernating Brown Bears

Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is involved in muscle atrophy through the overexpression of some atrogenes. However, it also controls the transcription of genes involved in muscle homeostasis maintenance. Here, we explored the effect of ATF4 activation by the pharmacological molecule halofuginone during hindlimb suspension (HS)-induced muscle atrophy. Firstly, we reported that periodic activation of ATF4-regulated atrogenes (Gadd45a, Cdkn1a, and Eif4ebp1) by halofuginone was not associated with muscle atrophy in healthy mice. Secondly, halofuginone-treated mice even showed reduced atrophy during HS, although the induction of the ATF4 pathway was identical to that in untreated HS mice. We further showed that halofuginone inhibited transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signalling, while promoting bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling in healthy mice and slightly preserved protein synthesis during HS. Finally, ATF4-regulated atrogenes were also induced in the atrophy-resistant muscles of hibernating brown bears, in which we previously also reported concurrent TGF-β inhibition and BMP activation. Overall, we show that ATF4-induced atrogenes can be uncoupled from muscle atrophy. In addition, our data also indicate that halofuginone can control the TGF-β/BMP balance towards muscle mass maintenance. Whether halofuginone-induced BMP signalling can counteract the effect of ATF4-induced atrogenes needs to be further investigated and may open a new avenue to fight muscle atrophy. Finally, our study opens the way for further studies to identify well-tolerated chemical compounds in humans that are able to fine-tune the TGF-β/BMP balance and could be used to preserve muscle mass during catabolic situations.

An optimized method for high-quality RNA extraction from distinctive intrinsic laryngeal muscles in the rat model

Challenges related to high-quality RNA extraction from post-mortem tissue have limited RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) application in certain skeletal muscle groups, including the intrinsic laryngeal muscles (ILMs). The present study identified critical factors contributing to substandard RNA extraction from the ILMs and established a suitable method that permitted high-throughput analysis. Here, standard techniques for tissue processing were adapted, and an effective means to control confounding effects during specimen preparation was determined. The experimental procedure consistently provided sufficient intact total RNA (N = 68) and RIN ranging between 7.0 and 8.6, which was unprecedented using standard RNA purification protocols. This study confirmed the reproducibility of the workflow through repeated trials at different postnatal time points and across the distinctive ILMs. High-throughput diagnostics from 90 RNA samples indicated no sequencing alignment scores below 70%, validating the extraction strategy. Significant differences between the standard and experimental conditions suggest circumvented challenges and broad applicability to other skeletal muscles. This investigation remains ongoing given the prospect of therapeutic insights to voice, swallowing, and airway disorders. The present methodology supports pioneering global transcriptome investigations in the larynx previously unfounded in literature.

Urotensin receptor acts as a novel target for ameliorating fasting-induced skeletal muscle atrophy

Urotensin receptor (UT) is a G-protein-coupled receptor, whose endogenous ligand is urotensin-II (U-II). Skeletal muscle mass is regulated by various conditions, such as nutritional status, exercise, and diseases. Previous studies have pointed out that the urotensinergic system is involved in skeletal muscle metabolism and function, but its mechanism remains unclear, especially given the lack of research on the effect and mechanism of fasting. In this study, UT receptor knockout mice were generated to evaluate whether UT has effects on fasting induced skeletal muscle atrophy. Furthermore, the UT antagonist palosuran (3, 10, 30mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered daily for 5 days to clarify the therapeutic effect of UT antagonism. Our results found the mice that fasted for 48hours exhibited skeletal muscle atrophy, accompanied by enhanced U-II levels in both skeletal muscles and blood. UT receptor knockout effectively prevented fasting-induced skeletal muscle atrophy. The UT antagonist ameliorated fasting-induced muscle atrophy in mice as determined by increased muscle strengths, weights, and muscle fiber areas (including fast, slow, and mixed types). In addition, the UT antagonist reduced skeletal muscle atrophic markers, including F-box only protein 32 (FBXO32) and tripartite motif containing 63 (TRIM63). Moreover, the UT antagonist was also observed to enhance PI3K/AKT/mTOR while inhibiting autophagy signaling. In summary, our study provides the first evidence that UT antagonism may represent a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of fasting-induced skeletal muscle atrophy.

Celecoxib alleviates denervation-induced muscle atrophy by suppressing inflammation and oxidative stress and improving microcirculation

The molecular mechanism underlying denervation-induced muscle atrophy is complex and incompletely understood. Our previous results suggested that inflammation may play an important role in the early stages of muscle atrophy. Celecoxib is reported to exert anti-inflammatory effects. Here, we explored the effect of celecoxib on denervation-induced muscle atrophy and sought to identify the mechanism involved. We found that celecoxib treatment significantly increased the wet weight ratio and CSA of the tibialisanteriormuscle. Additionally, celecoxib downregulated the levels of COX-2, inflammatory factors and reduced inflammatory cell infiltration. GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis indicated that after 3 days of celecoxib treatment in vivo, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were mainly associated with the regulation of immune responses related to complement activation; after 14 days, the DEGs were mainly involved in the regulation of oxidative stress and inflammation-related responses. Celecoxib administration reduced the levels of ROS and oxidative stress-related proteins. Furthermore, we found that celecoxib treatment inhibited the denervation-induced up-regulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome and autophagy-lysosomal systems related proteins; decreased mitophagy in target muscles; and increased levels of MHC. Finally, celecoxib also attenuated microvascular damage in denervated skeletal muscle. Combined, our findings demonstrated that celecoxib inhibits inflammation and oxidative stress in denervated skeletal muscle, thereby suppressing mitophagy and proteolysis, improving blood flow in target muscles, and, ultimately, alleviating denervation-induced muscle atrophy. Our results confirmed that inflammatory responses play a key role in denervation-induced muscle atrophy and highlight a novel strategy for the prevention and treatment of this condition.

Metformin Promotes Differentiation and Attenuates H2O2-Induced Oxidative Damage of Osteoblasts via the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2/HO-1 Pathway

At present, the drug treatment of osteoporosis is mostly focused on inhibiting osteoclastogenesis, which has relatively poor effects. Metformin is a drug that can potentially promote osteogenic differentiation and improve bone mass in postmenopausal women. We aimed to detect the molecular mechanism underlying the osteogenic effect of metformin. Our study indicated that metformin obviously increased the Alkaline phosphatase activity and expression of osteogenic marker genes at the mRNA and protein levels. The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway was revealed to play an essential role in the metformin-induced osteogenic process, as shown by RNA sequencing. We added LY294002 to inhibit the PI3K/AKT pathway, and the results indicated that the osteogenic effect of metformin was also blocked. Additionally, the sequencing data also indicated oxidation-reduction reaction was involved in the osteogenic process of osteoblasts. We used H₂O₂ to mimic the oxidative damage of osteoblasts, but metformin could attenuate it. Antioxidative Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, regarded as the downstream of PI3K/AKT pathway, was modulated by metformin in the protective process. We also revealed that metformin could improve bone mass and oxidative level of OVX mice. In conclusion, our study revealed that metformin promoted osteogenic differentiation and H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage of osteoblasts via the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

Mechanism of cell death of endothelial cells regulated by mechanical forces

Cell death of endothelial cells (ECs) is a common devastating consequence of various vascular-related diseases. Atherosclerosis, hypertension, sepsis, diabetes, cerebral ischemia and cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury, and chronic kidney disease remain major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, in which ECs are constantly subjected to a great amount of dynamic changed mechanical forces including shear stress, extracellular matrix stiffness, mechanical stretch and microgravity. A thorough understanding of the regulatory mechanisms by which the mechanical forces controlled the cell deaths including apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis is crucial for the development of new therapeutic strategies. In the present review, experimental and clinical data highlight that nutrient depletion, oxidative stress, tumor necrosis factor-α, high glucose, lipopolysaccharide, and homocysteine possess cytotoxic effects in many tissues and induce apoptosis of ECs, and that sphingosine-1-phosphate protects ECs. Nevertheless, EC apoptosis in the context of those artificial microenvironments could be enhanced, reduced or even reversed along with the alteration of patterns of shear stress. An appropriate level of autophagy diminishes EC apoptosis to some extent, in addition to supporting cell survival upon microenvironment challenges. The intervention of pyroptosis showed a profound effect on atherosclerosis. Further cell and animal studies are required to ascertain whether the alterations in the levels of cell deaths and their associated regulatory mechanisms happen at local lesion sites with considerable mechanical force changes, for preventing senescence and cell deaths in the vascular-related diseases.

Effect of Microgravity on Endothelial Cell Function, Angiogenesis, and Vessel Remodeling During Wound Healing

Wound healing is a complex phenomenon that involves different cell types with various functions, i.e., keratinocytes, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells, all influenced by the action of soluble mediators and rearrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Physiological angiogenesis occurs in the granulation tissue during wound healing to allow oxygen and nutrient supply and waste product removal. Angiogenesis output comes from a balance between pro- and antiangiogenic factors, which is finely regulated in a spatial and time-dependent manner, in order to avoid insufficient or excessive nonreparative neovascularization. The understanding of the factors and mechanisms that control angiogenesis and their change following unloading conditions (in a real or simulated space environment) will allow to optimize the tissue response in case of traumatic injury or medical intervention. The potential countermeasures under development to optimize the reparative angiogenesis that contributes to tissue healing on Earth will be discussed in relation to their exploitability in space.

Concurrent BMP Signaling Maintenance and TGF-β Signaling Inhibition Is a Hallmark of Natural Resistance to Muscle Atrophy in the Hibernating Bear

Muscle atrophy arises from a multiplicity of physio-pathological situations and has very detrimental consequences for the whole body. Although knowledge of muscle atrophy mechanisms keeps growing, there is still no proven treatment to date. This study aimed at identifying new drivers for muscle atrophy resistance. We selected an innovative approach that compares muscle transcriptome between an original model of natural resistance to muscle atrophy, the hibernating brown bear, and a classical model of induced atrophy, the unloaded mouse. Using RNA sequencing, we identified 4415 differentially expressed genes, including 1746 up- and 2369 down-regulated genes, in bear muscles between the active versus hibernating period. We focused on the Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-β and the Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) pathways, respectively, involved in muscle mass loss and maintenance. TGF-β- and BMP-related genes were overall down- and up-regulated in the non-atrophied muscles of the hibernating bear, respectively, and the opposite occurred for the atrophied muscles of the unloaded mouse. This was further substantiated at the protein level. Our data suggest TGF-β/BMP balance is crucial for muscle mass maintenance during long-term physical inactivity in the hibernating bear. Thus, concurrent activation of the BMP pathway may potentiate TGF-β inhibiting therapies already targeted to prevent muscle atrophy.