Overexpression of farnesoid X receptor in small airways contributes to epithelial to mesenchymal transition and COX-2 expression in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Characterizing COPD phenotypes with a targeted signaling lipids metabolomics approach

AIMS

This study aimed to elucidate clinically-relevant classifications of COPD using a targeted metabolomics approach focusing on signaling lipids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using a targeted LC-MS/MS platform, 166 metabolites including free fatty acids, prostaglandins, isoprostanes, lysophospholipids, endocannabinoids, and bile acids were profiled in a cohort of 49 COPD patients. The study integrated metabolomic data with clinical parameters to identify key metabolites and related pathways for various COPD classification systems including Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) grading stages, Koninklijk Nederlands Genootschap voor Fysiotherapie (KNGF, Royal Dutch Society for Physiotherapy) profiles, and Systemic (SYS) subtypes and explored the association of these classification systems.

KEY FINDINGS

The GOLD stages showed correlations with 15 metabolites, including lysophospholipids, oxylipins, and bile acids. KNGF profiles were linked to 13 metabolites, predominantly lysophospholipids, while SYS subtypes were associated with 9 metabolites, mainly oxylipins. A specific cluster of oxylipins, including HETEs and HDoHEs, was notably correlated to prognostic factors of COPD.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study identified distinct metabolic patterns associated with GOLD stages, KNGF profiles, and SYS subtypes. Additionally, the findings indicate that 14-HDoHE/DHA may serve as a potential biomarker for COPD exacerbation and suggest possible therapeutic targets for COPD, including pathways involving lipoxygenases, G-protein coupled receptors, and the Farnesoid X receptor.

FXR Activation Accelerates Early Phase of Osteoblast Differentiation Through COX-2-PGE2-EP4 Axis in BMP-2-Induced Mouse Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a nuclear receptor, is expressed in calvaria and bone marrow stromal cells and plays a role in bone homeostasis. However, the mechanism of FXR-activated osteoblast differentiation remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the regulatory mechanism underlying FXR-activated osteoblast differentiation using bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)-induced mouse ST-2 mesenchymal stem cells. We also synthesized a novel FXR agonist, FLG390, and compared its biological effects in osteoblast differentiation with a known FXR agonist, chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA). As an FXR agonist, FLG390 accelerated osteoblast differentiation to a comparable extent with CDCA, enhancing alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and the expression of osteoblast differentiated-related genes such as ALP, collagen type 1 α1 chain (COL1A1), and runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2). FXR activation elevated the expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and the production of prostaglandin (PG) E2 in the early phase of osteoblast differentiation. A selective COX-2 inhibitor and an antagonist of EP4 receptors, one of PGE2 receptors, partially suppressed FXR-activated osteoblast differentiation. Moreover, treatment with either inhibitor during the first 6 h after initiating osteoblast differentiation repressed FXR-activated osteoblast differentiation to the same extent as did the treatment for 6 d. Therefore, a novel FXR agonist, FLG390, exhibited potency comparable to CDCA. FXR activation promoted the early phase of osteoblast differentiation via the COX-2-PGE2-EP4 axis, representing a potential target for control of bone metabolism.

Traditional Chinese medicine to improve immune imbalance of asthma: focus on the adjustment of gut microbiota

Asthma, being the prevailing respiratory ailment globally, remains enigmatic in terms of its pathogenesis. In recent times, the advancement of traditional Chinese medicine pertaining to the intestinal microbiota has yielded a plethora of investigations, which have substantiated the potential of traditional Chinese medicine in disease prevention and treatment through modulation of the intestinal microbiota. Both animal models and clinical trials have unequivocally demonstrated the indispensable role of the intestinal microbiota in the pathogenesis of asthma. This article presents a summary of the therapeutic effects of traditional Chinese medicine in the context of regulating gut microbiota and its metabolites, thereby achieving immune regulation and inhibiting airway inflammation associated with asthma. It elucidates the mechanism by which traditional Chinese medicine modulates the gut microbiota to enhance asthma management, offering a scientific foundation for the utilization of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of asthma.

FXR deletion attenuates intestinal barrier dysfunction in murine acute intestinal inflammation

Accumulating literature suggests that the farnesoid-X receptor (FXR), a nuclear bile acid receptor best known for its role in bile acid homeostasis, is also a potent context-dependent regulator of inflammation. FXR may thus be relevant to several intestinal disease states including inflammatory bowel disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, and sepsis. In this study, we tested the effects of FXR deletion on acute murine intestinal inflammation. We found that FXR knockout (KO) mice were protected from intestinal injury and barrier dysfunction induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection, dithizone (DI)/Klebsiella, and cecal ligation/puncture models. In the LPS model, RNA sequencing and qPCR analysis showed that this protection correlated with substantial reduction in LPS-induced proinflammatory gene expression, including lower tissue levels of Il1a, Il1b, and Tnf. Examining functional effects on the epithelium, we found that LPS-induced tight junctional disruption as assessed by internalization of ZO-1 and occludin was ameliorated in FXR KO animals. Taken together, these data suggest a role for FXR in the intestinal barrier during inflammatory injury.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Intestinal barrier failure is a hallmark in gut-origin sepsis. We demonstrate that the intestinal barriers of farnesoid-X receptor (FXR) knockout (KO) animals are protected from inflammatory insult using multiple models of acute intestinal inflammation. This protection is due to decreased inflammatory cytokine production and maintenance of tight junctional architecture seen within the KO animals. This is the first report of FXR deletion being protective to the intestinal barrier.

Reineckia carnea Alleviates the Production of Inflammatory Cytokines and MUC5AC in Rats with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Background

Reineckia carnea (RC), a perennial evergreen herb which belongs to Reineckia Kunth (Liliaceae), can be used for clearing the lungs and relieving cough, reducing phlegm and anti-inflammatory effects. Moreover, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by airway and lung inflammation and increased secretion of airway mucus. Therefore, RC has the potential to treat COPD.

Methods

NR8383 cells were cultured and treated with various concentrations of RC (100 mg/mL, 10 mg/mL, 1 mg/mL, 100 μg/mL, 10 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 100 ng/mL, and 10 ng/mL). Cell viability and levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the cell culture supernatant or rat serum were analyzed using CCK-8 and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Sprague Dawley rats were assigned to mock, COPD model, RC (0.67 g/kg, 1.35 g/kg, and 2.7 g/kg), and ambroxol (5.4 mg/kg) groups. Western blot and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses were used to evaluate the protein and mRNA expression levels of mucin 5AC (MUC5AC) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4).

Results

The results showed that Reineckia carnea (RC) extract (RCE) inhibited the proliferation of NR8383 cells and suppressed the production of IL-1β, PGE2, and COX-2 in NR8383 cells. Moreover, RCE decreased the levels of IL-1β, PGE2, and COX-2 in the serum of rats with COPD and alleviated the expression of TLR4 and MUC5AC induced by COPD in rat lung tissue.

Conclusion

RCE alleviated COPD by inhibiting the expression of COPD-induced inflammatory cytokines and MUC5AC in rats.

Pulmonary inflammation caused by cigarette smoke combined with lipopolysaccharide up-regulated OATP2B1 in rat lung tissue and pulmonary epithelial cells

Organic anion transport polypeptide 2B1 (OATP2B1), as an uptake transporter, is involved in the transport of many related substrate drugs and endogenous substances in the lungs. A large amount of data shows that cigarette smoke plays an important role in the occurrence and development of lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma and bronchitis. However, the effect of cigarette smoke combined with lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary inflammation on the expression of OATP2B1 is not clear. In this study, we used cigarette smoke combined with lipopolysaccharide to establish a lung inflammation model in vivo and in vitro to explore the effect of inflammation on the expression of OATP2B1. Our study found that cigarette smoke combined with lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary inflammation upregulated the mRNA and protein expression of OATP2B1 and related inflammatory factors, and the expression level of related proteins was higher with the aggravation of inflammation. The experimental results of animals in vivo were consistent with those of cells in vitro. In summary, these findings provide a model and basis for a follow-up study of the mechanism of OATP2B1 in pulmonary inflammation.

Dioscin alleviates lung ischemia/reperfusion injury by regulating FXR-mediated oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation

Dioscin showed various pharmacological effects in our previous studies; however, the effects and mechanisms against lung ischemia/reperfusion injury (LI/RI) have not been reported. Hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) models were established using A549 and primary AEC-II cells, while LI/RI models were established in rats and mice. The effects of dioscin on oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in vivo and in vitro were investigated. The mechanisms were investigated focus on dioscin regulating FXR/LKB1 signaling pathway. Dioscin improved cell viability and mitochondrial membrane potential, reduced reactive oxygen species level, and inhibited H/R-mediated cell apoptosis. It also significantly decreased the lung wet/dry weight ratio, ameliorated levels of oxidative stress indicators, and enhanced the mitochondrial membrane potential and inhibited cell apoptosis in vivo. The results of mechanism research showed that dioscin activated FXR/LKB1 signals by increasing the expression of p-LKB1 and p-AMPKα, promoting the nuclear translocation of Nrf2, up-regulating the levels of HO-1, NQO1 and GCLC, expressed against oxidative stress. Furthermore, dioscin reduced Cyt C released, decreased the expression levels of Caspase-9 and Caspase-3 during apoptosis. Dioscin suppressed inflammation by inhibiting NF-κB translocation, reducing the expression levels of NF-κB, HMGB1, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. The transfection of FXR or LKB1 siRNA further confirmed that the protective effect of dioscin against LI/RI was attributable to the regulation of FXR/LKB1 signaling pathway. Our research showed that dioscin exhibited potent activity against LI/RI, by adjusting the levels of FXR/LKB1-mediated oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation, and should be considered as a new candidate for treating LI/RI.

Cigarette smoke extract combined with LPS down-regulates the expression of MRP2 in chronic pulmonary inflammation may be related to FXR

The transporter multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2) plays an important role in chronic pulmonary inflammation by transporting cigarette smoke and other related inflammatory mediators. However, it is not completely clear whether pulmonary inflammation caused by cigarette smoke extract (CSE) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is related to MRP2 and its signal factors. In this study, CSE combined with LPS was used to establish an inflammation model in vivo and in vitro. We found that compared with the control group, after CSE combined with LPS treatment, the expression of MRP2 in rat lung tissue in vivo and human alveolar cell line in vitro was down-regulated, while the expression of inflammatory factors was up-regulated. Through silencing and overexpression of FXR, it was found that silent FXR could down-regulate MRP2 and up-regulate the expression of inflammatory factors. On the contrary, overexpression of FXR could up-regulate MRP2 and down-regulate the expression of inflammatory factors. Our results show that CSE combined with LPS can down-regulate the expression of MRP2 under inflammatory conditions, and the down-regulation of MRP2 expression may be achieved partly through the FXR signal pathway.

The changes of MRP2 expression in three kinds of pulmonary inflammation models: the downregulation occurred in cigarette smoke extract (CSE) stimulation group and CSE plus LPS stimulation group, unchanged in LPS stimulation group

The transporter multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2) can transport some tobacco carcinogens and plays an important role in the transport of mediators related to pulmonary inflammatory diseases. However, it is not fully understood whether the pulmonary inflammation caused by cigarette smoke extract (CSE) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is related to the regulation of MRP2. In this study, CSE and LPS were used alone and in combination as stimuli to induce pulmonary inflammation. In addition, the establishment of a pulmonary inflammation model was verified by animal experiments in vivo. We found that compared with those in the control group, the expression of MRP2 protein was downregulated and the expression of inflammatory cytokines was upregulated in pulmonary inflammation in the CSE group and the CSE combined with LPS group. However, there was almost no change in the expression of MRP2 stimulated by LPS alone. Our results show that CSE and CSE combined with LPS downregulate the expression of MRP2 under inflammatory conditions, while LPS has almost no effect on the expression of MRP2 under inflammatory conditions. The in vivo experimental results of CSE combined with LPS were consistent with the cellular results of CSE combined with LPS, which provides a model and basis for other studies of the role of MRP2 in pulmonary inflammation.

Fully integrating pathophysiological insights in COPD: an updated working disease model to broaden therapeutic vision

Our starting point is that relatively new findings into the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of airway disease in smokers that lead to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) need to be reassessed as a whole and integrated into "mainstream" thinking along with traditional concepts which have stood the test of time. Such a refining of the accepted disease paradigm is urgently needed as thinking on therapeutic targets is currently under active reconsideration. We feel that generalised airway wall "inflammation" is unduly over-emphasised, and highlight the patchy and variable nature of the pathology (with the core being airway remodelling). In addition, we present evidence for airway wall disease in smokers/COPD as including a hypocellular, hypovascular, destructive, fibrotic pathology, with a likely spectrum of epithelial-mesenchymal transition states as significant drivers of this remodelling. Furthermore, we present data from a number of research modalities and integrate this with the aetiology of lung cancer, the role of chronic airway luminal colonisation/infection by a specific group of "respiratory" bacteria in smokers (which results in luminal inflammation) and the central role for oxidative stress on the epithelium. We suggest translation of these insights into more focus on asymptomatic smokers and early COPD, with the potential for fresh preventive and therapeutic approaches.

Differential roles of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) in modulating apoptosis in cancer cells

Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality in the world. The conventional treatment strategies of cancer are surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. However, in the advanced stage of the disease chemotherapy is the prime treatment and it is effective in only less than 10% of the patients. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find out novel therapeutic targets and delineate the mechanism of action of these targets for better management of this disease. Recent studies have shown that some of the proteins have differential role in different cancers. Therefore, it is pertinent that the targeting of these proteins should be based on the type of cancer. The nuclear receptor, FXR, is one of the vital proteins that regulate cell apoptosis. Besides, it also regulates other processes such as cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and migration. Studies suggest that the low or high expression of FXR is associated with the progression of carcinogenesis depending on the cancer types. Due to the diverse expression, it functions as both tumor suppressor and promoter. Previous studies suggest the overexpression of FXR in breast, lung, esophageal, and prostate cancer, which is related to poor survival and poor prognosis in patients. Therefore, targeting FXR with agonists and antagonists play different outcome in different cancers. Hence, this review describes the role of FXR in different cancers and the role of its inhibitors and activators for the prevention and treatment of various cancers.

Nuclear Receptors in Asthma: Empowering Classical Molecules Against a Contemporary Ailment

The escalation in living standards and adoption of 'Western lifestyle' has an allied effect on the increased allergy and asthma burden in both developed and developing countries. Current scientific reports bespeak an association between allergic diseases and metabolic dysfunction; hinting toward the critical requirement of organized lifestyle and dietary habits. The ubiquitous nuclear receptors (NRs) translate metabolic stimuli into gene regulatory signals, integrating diet inflences to overall developmental and physiological processes. As a consequence of such promising attributes, nuclear receptors have historically been at the cutting edge of pharmacy world. This review discusses the recent findings that feature the cardinal importance of nuclear receptors and how they can be instrumental in modulating current asthma pharmacology. Further, it highlights a possible future employment of therapy involving dietary supplements and synthetic ligands that would engage NRs and aid in eliminating both asthma and linked comorbidities. Therefore, uncovering new and evolving roles through analysis of genomic changes would represent a feasible approach in both prevention and alleviation of asthma.

Role of Farnesoid X Receptor in the Pathogenesis of Respiratory Diseases

Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a bile acid receptor encoded by the Nr1h4 gene. FXR plays an important role in maintaining the stability of the internal environment and the integrity of many organs, including the liver and intestines. The expression of FXR in nondigestible tissues other than in the liver and small intestine is known as the expression of “nonclassical” bile acid target organs, such as blood vessels and lungs. In recent years, several studies have shown that FXR is widely involved in the pathogenesis of various respiratory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchial asthma, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Moreover, a number of works have confirmed that FXR can regulate the bile acid metabolism in the body and exert its anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects in the airways and lungs. In addition, FXR may be used as a potential therapeutic target for some respiratory diseases. For example, FXR can regulate the tumor microenvironment by regulating the balance of inflammatory and immune responses in the body to promote the occurrence and development of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), thereby being considered a potential target for immunotherapy of NSCLC. In this article, we provide an overview of the internal relationship between FXR and respiratory diseases to track the progress that has been achieved thus far in this direction and suggest potential therapeutic prospects of FXR in respiratory diseases.

Potential of guggulsterone, a farnesoid X receptor antagonist, in the prevention and treatment of cancer

Cancer is one of the most dreadful diseases in the world with a mortality of 9.6 million annually. Despite the advances in diagnosis and treatment during the last couple of decades, it still remains a serious concern due to the limitations associated with currently available cancer management strategies. Therefore, alternative strategies are highly required to overcome these glitches. The importance of medicinal plants as primary healthcare has been well-known from time immemorial against various human diseases, including cancer. Commiphora wightii that belongs to Burseraceae family is one such plant which has been used to cure various ailments in traditional systems of medicine. This plant has diverse pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antimutagenic, and antitumor which mostly owes to the presence of its active compound guggulsterone (GS) that exists in the form of Z- and E-isomers. Mounting evidence suggests that this compound has promising anticancer activities and was shown to suppress several cancer signaling pathways such as NF-κB/ERK/MAPK/AKT/STAT and modulate the expression of numerous signaling molecules such as the farnesoid X receptor, cyclin D1, survivin, caspases, HIF-1α, MMP-9, EMT proteins, tumor suppressor proteins, angiogenic proteins, and apoptotic proteins. The current review is an attempt to summarize the biological activities and diverse anticancer activities (both in vitro and in vivo) of the compound GS and its derivatives, along with its associated mechanism against various cancers.

The profibrotic effects of chronic microaspiration of bile acids on lungs of rats at different stages

This study aimed to explore the profibrotic effects of chronic microaspiration of two major bile acids, including chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) and deoxycholic acid (DCA), on lungs of rats at different stages, as well as the underlying mechanisms in vivo. A rat model was induced by weekly intratracheal instillation of DCA and CDCA. Our results showed that chronic microaspiration of bile acids resulted in alveolar structure disorder, and inflammatory cells infiltration in the pulmonary interstitium at the early stage. Subsequently, numerous fibroblasts were proliferated, and collagen deposition was profoundly increased over the interstitium of the airways and vessels. Compared with control group, the expression of α-smooth muscle actin, type I collagen, hydroxyproline, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in the lung tissues were remarkably elevated at the 2nd week, reached the highest level at the 6th week, and maintained high at the 8th week in both DCA- and CDCA-treated groups (P < 0.05). Furthermore, chronic microaspiration of bile acids led to higher levels of glutathione and malondialdehyde, while lower level of superoxide dismutase in lung tissues compared with controls (P < 0.05), thereby resulting in the oxidant/antioxidant enzyme imbalance in the formation of fibrosis. In addition, we also found a consistent growth in the expression of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) in both DCA- and CDCA-treated groups. Our findings suggested that chronic microaspiration of bile acids could initiate the process of pulmonary fibrosis from the early phase and promote its progression in a time-dependent manner, which likely involved the TGF-β1, oxidative stress, and FXR-related pathways.

Effect of piperlongumine during exposure to cigarette smoke reduces inflammation and lung injury

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is related to smoking and anti-inflammatory therapy is indicated. Among the mediators with anti-inflammatory properties, we highlight piperlongumine (PL), an alkaloid/amide of Piper longum. Here we evaluated the PL administration on an experimental model of respiratory inflammation resulting from exposure to cigarette smoke. Male Balb/c mice were exposed to burning of 10 commercial cigarettes, 2x/day, for five weeks on specific equipment. PL efficacy was evaluated in control, exposed to smoke without treatment and PL treated (2.0 mg/kg, 3x/week) groups. Animals were weighed and plethysmographic analyses performed at the end of the exposure protocol. Inflammatory cells were evaluated in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and hemoglobin and glucose in the blood. Lung fragments were processed for histopathological studies and AnxA1, COX-2, NF-kB and neutrophil elastase expressions. Plethysmography revealed that PL maintained pulmonary frequency, volume and ventilation parameters similar to controls, with respiratory volume reduction compared to untreated animals. Final weight was reduced in both exposed groups. PL decreased hemoglobin concentration, attenuated the reduction of glucose levels and reduced influx of lymphocytes, neutrophils and macrophages in BAL. Histopathologically occured infiltration of inflammatory cells, increase of the interalveolar septa and intra-alveolar spaces in untreated animals. But, PL administration recovered lung tissues and, immunohistochemically, promoted increased expression of AnxA1 and reduction of COX-2, NF-kB and neutrophil elastase. Together the results indicate that PL attenuates systemic and pulmonary inflammatory changes, partially by modulating the expression the endogenous AnxA1, and may represent a promising therapy in preventing the inflammation induced by cigarette smoke.

Farnesoid X Receptor Activation Enhances Transforming Growth Factor β-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a receptor for bile acids and plays an important role in the regulation of bile acid metabolism in the liver. Although FXR has been shown to affect hepatocarcinogenesis through both direct and indirect mechanisms, potential roles of FXR in epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unclear. We examined the effect of several FXR ligands on EMT-related morphological changes in HCC cell lines, such as HuH-7 and Hep3B cells. FXR agonists (chenodeoxycholic acid, GW4064, and obeticholic acid)—but not an antagonist (guggulsterone)—induced actin polymerization and expression of N-cadherin and phosphorylated focal adhesion kinase, although they were less effective than transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). FXR agonist treatment enhanced TGF-β-induced EMT morphologic changes and FXR antagonist inhibited the effect of TGF-β. Thus, FXR activation enhances EMT in HCC and FXR antagonists may be EMT-suppressing drug candidates.

Bile Acids and Cancer: Direct and Environmental-Dependent Effects

Bile acids (BAs) regulate the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, cholesterol and lipids but have also a key role as singalling molecules and in the modulation of epithelial cell proliferation, gene expression and metabolism. These homeostatic pathways, when disrupted, are able to promote local inflammation, systemic metabolic disorders and, ultimately, cancer. The effect of hydrophobic BAs, in particular, can be linked with cancer in several digestive (mainly oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, biliary tract, colon) and extra-digestive organs (i.e. prostate, breast) through a complex series of mechanisms including direct oxidative stress with DNA damage, apoptosis, epigenetic factors regulating gene expression, reduced/increased expression of nuclear receptors (mainly farnesoid X receptor, FXR) and altered composition of gut microbiota, also acting as a common interface between environmental factors (including diet, lifestyle, exposure to toxics) and the molecular events promoting cancerogenesis. Primary prevention strategies (i.e. changes in dietary habits and lifestyle, reduced exposure to environmental toxics) mainly able to modulate gut microbiota and the epigenome, and the therapeutic use of hydrophilic BAs to counterbalance the negative effects of the more hydrophobic BAs might be, in the near future, part of useful tools for cancer prevention and management.

Physalis peruviana L. inhibits airway inflammation induced by cigarette smoke and lipopolysaccharide through inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and induction of heme oxygenase-1

Physalis peruviana L. (PP) is a medicinal herb that has been confirmed to have several biological activities, including anticancer, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of PP on cigarette smoke (CS)- and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pulmonary inflammation. Treatment with PP significantly reduced the influx of inflammatory cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung of mice with CS- and LPS-induced pulmonary inflammation. PP also decreased the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the BALF. PP effectively attenuated the expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in the lung. In addition, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression were increased by PP treatment. In an in vitro experiment, PP reduced the mRNA expression of TNF-α and MCP-1, and the activation of ERK in CS extract-stimulated A549 epithelial cells. Furthermore, PP increased the activation of Nrf2 and the expression of HO-1 in A549 cells. These findings suggest that PP has a therapeutic potential for the treatment of pulmonary inflammatory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.