A high bioavailability and sustained-release nano-delivery system for nintedanib based on electrospray technology

Use quercetin for pulmonary fibrosis: a preclinical systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is an age-related interstitial lung disease, which lacks effective drug treatment at present. Quercetin has been shown to have favorable anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic properties, and preliminary evidence suggests its potential efficacy and tolerability in PF patients. However, a comprehensive systematic review and evaluation of the protective effects and potential mechanisms of quercetin in PF models remains to be completed. Therefore, we conducted this study.

METHODS

The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Web of Science databases were searched up to the April 1, 2024. CAMARADES was the methodological quality assessment tool. And statistical analyses were conducted with R and Stata 16.0. Origin was used for a three-dimensional (3D) dosage-intervention duration-efficacy model for quercetin treatment of PF.

RESULTS

A total of 20 studies, encompassing 44 independent experiments and involving 1019 animals, were included in the analysis. Meta-analysis revealed that quercetin significantly mitigated lung pathological tissue scores and the expression of lung fibrosis markers in PF animal models. Furthermore, quercetin significantly ameliorated inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and myofibroblast activation, cell senescence and apoptosis, and the markers expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Quercetin did not show significant hepatic and nephrotoxicity. The 3D dosage-intervention duration-efficacy model indicated that a dosing period over 20 days and dosages range of 5-100 mg/kg were appropriate modalities.

CONCLUSION

Herein, our study highlights the potential of quercetin in the treatment of PF and the available mechanisms.

Nintedanib loaded iron (III) chelated melanin nanoparticles as an MRI-visible antifibrotic drug delivery system

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal, progressive lung disease characterized by extensive scarring and thickening of lung tissue that leads to respiratory failure. Early and accurate diagnosis is crucial for monitoring disease progression and assessing therapeutic efficacy. While imaging modalities such as radiological X-rays and high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) are commonly employed, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers significant advantages, including superior soft tissue contrast and the absence of ionizing radiation. However, in lung MRIs are hindered by short transverse relaxation times, low proton density, and motion artifacts which is addressed herein by developing theranostic platform combining MRI imaging with targeted drug delivery using melanin nanoparticles conjugated with nintedanib (MNP-NIN). Chelation with ferric ions (MNP-NIN-Fe³⁺) enhanced MRI visibility enabling non-invasive imaging and drug tracking. MNP-NIN and MNP-NIN-Fe³ ⁺ nanoparticles were built with mean diameters of 189 ± 44 nm and 182 ± 35 nm, respectively and demonstrating successful NIN conjugation. Controlled NIN release followed zero-order kinetics over 36 days. MNP conjugation reduced cytotoxicity in BEAS-2B and A549 cells improving the drug's safety. MRI experiments conducted with a 7.0 T animal scanner demonstrated enhanced imaging contrast with MNP-NIN-Fe solutions compared to saline underscoring their potential for localized visualization and tracking within lung tissues. By integrating MRI diagnostics and targeted drug delivery, the MNP-NIN-Fe³ ⁺ system offers a promising solution to overcome current challenges in IPF management. This theranostic platform addresses the limitations of conventional imaging techniques while providing an innovative strategy for reducing drug-related systemic side effects and improving therapeutic efficacy.

Inhalable polysorbates stabilized nintedanib nanocrystals to facilitate pulmonary nebulization and alveolar macrophage evasion

Pulmonary delivery of nintedanib has noticeable advantages over the current oral administration in managing idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). However, it remains a challenge to construct an efficient lung delivery system for insoluble nintedanib to resist nebulization instabilities and alveolar macrophage clearance. Herein, we attempted to develop nintedanib as inhalable nanocrystals stabilized with polysorbates. Different types of polysorbates (polysorbate 20, 40, 60, 80) and various drug-surfactant molar ratios (DSR = 10, 30, 60) were screened to determine the optimal nintedanib nanocrystal formulation. Most formulations (except those stabilized by polysorbate 40) could tailor nintedanib nanocrystals with sizes around 600 nm, and the nebulization-caused drug loss could be significantly reduced when DSR increased to 60. Meanwhile, all nanocrystals boosted the in vitro drug dissolution rate and improved the aerosol performance of nintedanib. Although nebulization-caused particle aggregation was found in most formulations, the nanocrystal stabilized with polysorbate 80 at DSR 60 presented no apparent size change after nebulization. This formulation exhibited superior alveolar macrophage evasion, enhanced fibroblast cluster infiltration, and improved fibroblast cluster inhibition compared with other formulations, indicating its significant potential for pulmonary nintedanib delivery. Overall, this study explored the potential of polysorbates in stabilizing nintedanib nanocrystals for nebulization and proposed practical solutions to transfer nintedanib from oral to lung delivery.

Investigating the Potential of Ufasomes Laden with Nintedanib as an Optimized Targeted Lung Nanoparadigm for Accentuated Tackling of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Background/objectives: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a prevalent interstitial lung disease that typically progresses gradually, leading to respiratory failure and ultimately death. IPF can be treated with the tyrosine kinase inhibitor, nintedanib (NTD), owing to its anti-fibrotic properties, which ameliorate the impairment of lung function. This study aimed to formulate, optimize, and assess NTD-loaded ufasomes (NTD-UFSs) as a nanosystem for its pulmonary targeting to snowball the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of the drug. Methods: To investigate the influence of numerous factors on NTD-UFSs assembly and to determine the optimal formulation, Box-Behnken statistical design was implemented with the assistance of Design-Expert® software. The thin-film hydration strategy was employed to fabricate NTD-UFSs. The optimum NTD-UFSs formulation was subsequently selected and subjected to additional evaluations. Also, using a rat model, a comparative pharmacokinetic analysis was scrutinized. Results: The optimal NTD-UFSs elicited an accumulative release of 65.57% after 24 h, an encapsulation efficiency of 62.51%, a zeta potential of -36.07 mV, and a vesicular size of 364.62 nm. In addition, it disclosed remarkable stability and a continuous cumulative release pattern. In vivo histopathological studies ascertained the tolerability of NTD-UFSs administered intratracheally. According to the pharmacokinetic studies, intratracheal NTD-UFSs administration manifested a significantly higher AUC0-∞ value than oral and intratracheal NTD suspensions, by approximately 5.66- and 3.53-fold, respectively. Conclusions: The findings of this study proposed that UFSs might be a promising nanoparadigm for the non-invasive pulmonary delivery of NTD.

Optimization and Appraisal of Nintedanib-Loaded Mixed Polymeric Micelles as a Potential Nanovector for Non-Invasive Pulmonary Fibrosis Mitigation

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Nintedanib (NTD), a triple tyrosine kinase receptor inhibitor, is the recommended first-line tackling option for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Nevertheless, the adequacy of NTD is curtailed by issues associated with its low solubility, first-pass effect, poor bioavailability, and liver toxicity. The objective of our work was to develop a non-invasive intratracheal (i.t.) nanoparadigm based on NTD-loaded polymeric mixed micelles (NTD-PMMs) that can effectively treat IPF by sustaining the release of NTD, and snowballing its bioavailability, solubility, and efficacy.

METHODS

Design-Expert® software was used to optimize various NTD-PMMs formulations via Box-Behnken design adopting the thin-film hydration technique. The optimum formulation was chosen and in vivo tested in a rat model to explore its comparative bioavailability and toxicity.

RESULTS

The formulation composition with 309.217 mg of Soluplus, 150 mg of Tween 80, and 40 mg of sodium deoxycholate was found to fulfill the requisites of an optimum NTD-PMMs formulation. The optimum NTD-PMMs formulation divulged 90.26% entrapment efficiency with a surface charge of -14.72 mV and a nanoscale diameter of 61.36 nm. Also, it substantially sustained the release of NTD by 66.84% after 24 h and manifested a pronounced stability. In vivo histopathology investigations verified the safety of NTD-PMMs delivered intratracheally. Moreover, pharmacokinetic analyses disclosed accentuated relative bioavailability of the optimized NTD-PMMs by 2.4- and 3.82-fold as compared with both the i.t. and oral crude NTD suspensions, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the current results elicited the potential of PMMs to serve as a promising pulmonary nanovector for the targeted delivery of NTD.

Preparation, Characterization and Evaluation of Nintedanib Amorphous Solid Dispersions with Enhanced Oral Bioavailability

The dissolution and bioavailability challenges posed by poorly water-soluble drugs continue to drive innovation in pharmaceutical formulation design. Nintedanib (NDNB) is a typical BCS class II drug that has been utilized to treat idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Due to the low solubility, its oral bioavailability is relatively low, limiting its therapeutical effectiveness. It is crucial to enhance the dissolution and the oral bioavailability of NDNB. In this study, we focused on the preparation of amorphous solid dispersions (ASD) using hot melt extrusion (HME). The formulation employed Kollidon® VA64 (VA64) as the polymer matrix, blended with the NDNB at a ratio of 9:1. HME was conducted at temperatures ranging from 80 °C to 220 °C. The successful preparation of ASD was confirmed through various tests including polarized light microscopy (PLM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The in-vitro cumulative release of NDNB-ASD in 2 h in a pH 6.8 medium was 8.3-fold higher than that of NDNB (p < 0.0001). In a pH 7.4 medium, it was 10 times higher (p < 0.0001). In the in-vivo pharmacokinetic experiments, the area under curve (AUC) of NDNB-ASD was 5.3-fold higher than that of NDNB and 2.2 times higher than that of commercially available soft capsules (Ofev®) (p < 0.0001). There was no recrystallization after 6 months under accelarated storage test. Our study indicated that NDNB-ASD can enhance the absorption of NDNB, thus providing a promising method to improve NDNB bioavailability in oral dosages.

Construction of the pulmonary bio-adhesive delivery system of nintedanib nanocrystalline for effective treatment of pulmonary fibrosis

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a chronic, progressive, and fatal lung disease with a high mortality rate. Nintedanib, as a multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is widely used as the first line drug for PF patients. However, only nintedanib oral formulations are used currently in clinic and show a low drug selectivity, significant first-pass effect and low bioavailability with 4.7%, thus limiting the clinical outcome of nintedanib. In this study, nintedanib was prepared in the form of nintedanib nanocrystalline (Nib-NC) and then encapsulated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to construct a nanocrystalline-in-adhesive delivery system Nib-NC@HA with high drug loading efficacy and pulmonary bio-adhesive properties, which could avoid the first-pass effects, increase the bioavailability and reduce the systemic side effects of nintedanib. After inhalation administration of Nib-NC@HA, due to the bio-adhesive properties of HA, Nib-NC@HA could prolong the retention time of drug in the lungs and inhibit the expression of inflammation associated factors such as IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α in lung tissue, reduce the release of pro-fibrotic growth factor, and improve the lung function, thus showing enhanced anti-fibrotic effect than Nib-NC. The results suggested that Nib-NC@HA is an efficient and optimal targeted bio-adhesive delivery system for the lungs to treat pulmonary fibrosis.

Advanced Delivery Strategies of Nintedanib for Lung Disorders and Beyond: A Comprehensive Review

Nintedanib, a primary treatment for lung fibrosis, has gathered substantial attention due to its multifaceted potential. A tyrosine kinase inhibitor, nintedanib, inhibits multiple signalling receptors, including endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), and fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) and ultimately inhibits fibroblast proliferation and differentiation. Therefore, nintedanib has been studied widely for other ailments like cancers and hepatic fibrosis, apart from lung disorders. Commercially, nintedanib is available as soft gelatin capsules for treatment against idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Since it has very low oral bioavailability (4.7%), high doses of a drug, such as 100-150 mg, are administered, which can cause problems of gastrointestinal irritation and hepatotoxicity. The article begins with exploring the mechanism of action of nintedanib, elucidating its complex interactions within cellular pathways that govern fibrotic processes. It also emphasizes the pharmacokinetics of nintedanib, clinical trial insights, and the limitations of conventional formulations. The article mainly focuses on the emerging landscape of nanoparticle-based carriers such as hybrid liposome-exosome, nano liquid crystals, discoidal polymeric, and magnetic systems, offering promising avenues to optimize drug targeting, address its efficacy issues and minimise adverse effects. However, none of these delivery systems are commercialised, and further research is required to ensure safety and effectiveness in clinical settings. Yet, as research progresses, these advanced delivery systems promise to revolutionise the treatment landscape for various fibrotic disorders and cancers, potentially improving patient outcomes and quality of life.

Eudragit L100-coated nintedanib nanocrystals improve oral bioavailability by reducing drug particle size and maintaining drug supersaturation

The aim of this study was to prepare nintedanib nanocrystals (BIBF-NCs) to lower the solubility of the drug in the stomach, maintain the supersaturation of the drug in the intestine, and improve the oral absorption of nintedanib (BIBF). In this study, BIBF-NCs were prepared by acid solubilization and alkaline precipitation following nano granding method, with a particle size of 290.80 nm and a zeta potential of -49.13 mV. Subsequently, Nintedanib enteric-coated nanocrystals (BIBF-NCs@L100) were obtained by coating with Eudragit L100. The microscopic morphology, crystalline characteristics, stability, and in vitro dissolution of BIBF-NCs and BIBF-NCs@L100 were also studied. In addition, the in vivo pharmacokinetic behaviors of Samples prepared according to the prescription process of commercially available soft capsules (soft capsules), BIBF-NCs, and BIBF-NCs@L100 were further investigated. The results showed that the oral bioavailability of BIBF-NCs and BIBF-NCs@L100 were increased by 1.43 and 2.58 times, compared with that of the soft capsules. BIBF-NCs@L100 effectively reduced the release of BIBF in the formulation in the stomach, allowing more drug to reach the intestine in the form of nanocrystals, maintaining the supersaturation in the intestine, thereby improving the oral bioavailability of the drug.

ECM-mimetic, NSAIDs loaded thermo-responsive, immunomodulatory hydrogel for rheumatoid arthritis treatment

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease, and it leads to irreversible inflammation in intra-articular joints. Current treatment approaches for RA include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), corticosteroids, and biological agents. To overcome the drug-associated toxicity of conventional therapy and transdermal tissue barrier, an injectable NSAID-loaded hydrogel system was developed and explored its efficacy.

RESULTS

The surface morphology and porosity of the hydrogels indicate that they mimic the natural ECM, which is greatly beneficial for tissue healing. Further, NSAIDs, i.e., diclofenac sodium, were loaded into the hydrogel, and the in vitro drug release pattern was found to be burst release for 24 h and subsequently sustainable release of 50% drug up to 10 days. The DPPH assay revealed that the hydrogels have good radical scavenging activity. The biocompatibility study carried out by MTT assay proved good biocompatibility and anti-inflammatory activity of the hydrogels was carried out by gene expression study in RAW 264.7 cells, which indicate the downregulation of several key inflammatory genes such as COX-2, TNF-α & 18s.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the proposed ECM-mimetic, thermo-sensitive in situ hydrogels may be utilized for intra-articular inflammation modulation and can be beneficial by reducing the frequency of medication and providing optimum lubrication at intra-articular joints.

Revolutionizing the Treatment of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: From Conventional Therapies to Advanced Drug Delivery Systems

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic and progressive interstitial lung disease that has been well-reported in the medical literature. Its incidence has risen, particularly in light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Conventionally, IPF is treated with antifibrotic drugs-pirfenidone and nintedanib-along with other drugs for symptomatic treatments, including corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and bronchodilators based on individual requirements. Several drugs and biologicals such as fluorofenidone, thymoquinone, amikacin, paclitaxel nifuroxazide, STAT3, and siRNA have recently been evaluated for IPF treatment that reduces collagen formation and cell proliferation in the lung. There has been a great deal of research into various treatment options for pulmonary fibrosis using advanced delivery systems such as liposomal-based nanocarriers, chitosan nanoparticles, PLGA nanoparticles, solid lipid nanocarriers, and other nanoformulations such as metal nanoparticles, nanocrystals, cubosomes, magnetic nanospheres, and polymeric micelles. Several clinical trials are also ongoing for advanced IPF treatments. This article elaborates on the pathophysiology of IPF, its risk factors, and different advanced drug delivery systems for treating IPF. Although extensive preclinical data is available for these delivery systems, the clinical performance and scale-up studies would decide their commercial translation.

Nintedanib solid lipid nanoparticles improve oral bioavailability and ameliorate pulmonary fibrosis in vitro and in vivo models

Nintedanib (NIN) and pirfenidone are the only approved drugs for the treatment of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF). However, NIN and pirfenidone have low oral bioavailability and limited therapeutic potential, requiring higher dosages to increase their efficacy, which causes significant liver and gastrointestinal toxicities. In this study, we aimed to develop nintedanib-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (NIN-SLN) to improve the oral bioavailability and therapeutic potential against TGF-β-induced differentiation in IPF fibroblasts and bleomycin (BLM)-induced lung fibrosis in rat models. NIN-SLN was prepared using a double-emulsification method and characterization studies (Particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency and other parameters) were performed using various techniques. NIN-SLN treatment significantly (p < 0.001) downregulated α-SMA and COL3A1 expression in TGF-β stimulated DHLF and LL29 cells. NIN-SLN showed a 2.87-fold increase in the bioavailability of NIN and also improved the NIN levels in lung tissues compared to NIN alone. Pharmacodynamic investigation revealed that NIN-SLN (50 mg/Kg) treatment significantly attenuated BLM-induced lung fibrosis by inhibiting epithelial-to-mesenchymal-transition (EMT), extracellular matrix remodelling, and collagen deposition compared to free NIN. Additionally, in the BLM model of fibrosis, NIN-SLN greatly improved the BLM-caused pathological changes, attenuated the NIN-induced gastrointestinal abnormalities, and significantly improved the lung functional indices compared to free NIN. Collectively, NIN-SLN could be a promising nanoformulation for the management of pulmonary fibrosis.

Long-circulating thiolated chitosan nanoparticles of nintedanib with N-acetyl cysteine for treating idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: In vitro assessment of cytotoxicity, antioxidant, and antifibrotic potential

Nintedanib (NIN) is one of the FDA-approved tyrosine kinase inhibitor drugs used to treat idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). This study aimed to formulate a long-circulating injection of Nintedanib to treat bedridden patients with IPF. Nintedanib was incorporated into chitosan nanoparticles (NIN-NP) via the ionic gelation method, and N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), a known antioxidant and mucolytic agent, was added to the NIN-NP (NAC-NIN-NP). The lyophilized formulation had a particle size of 174 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.511, and a zeta potential of 18.6 mV. The spherical nanoparticles were observed in transmission electron microscopy, whereas field emission scanning electron microscopy showed irregular clusters of NP. The thiolation of the chitosan in NAC-NIN-NP was confirmed by ATR-FTIR and NMR, which improved drug release profiles showing >90 % drug release that was 2.42-folds greater than NIN-NP lasting for five days. The DPPH assay showed that adding NAC increased the % inhibition of oxidation in blank-NP (from 54.59 % to 87.17 %) and NIN-NP (58.65 %-89.19 %). The MTT assay on A549 cells showed 67.57 % cell viability by NAC-NIN-NP with an IC50 value of 28 μg/mL. The NAC formulation reduced hydroxyproline content (56.77 μg/mL) compared to NIN-NP (69.48 μg/mL) in WI-38 cell lines. Meanwhile, the healthy cells count with NAC-NIN-NP was higher (5.104 × 103) than with NIN-NP (4.878 × 103). In Hoechst staining, no significant damage to DNA was observed by the drug or formulation. Therefore, NAC-NIN-NP could be a promising treatment option for IPF patients and can be studied further clinically.

Carrier-Free Inhalable Dry Microparticles of Celecoxib: Use of the Electrospraying Technique

Upregulation of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) plays an important role in lung cancer pathogenesis. Celecoxib (CLX), a selective COX-2 inhibitor, may have beneficial effects in COVID-19-induced inflammatory storms. The current study aimed to develop carrier-free inhalable CLX microparticles by electrospraying as a dry powder formulation for inhalation (DPI). CLX microparticles were prepared through an electrospraying method using a suitable solvent mixture at two different drug concentrations. The obtained powders were characterized in terms of their morphology, solid state, dissolution behavior, and aerosolization performance. Electrosprayed particles obtained from the ethanol-acetone solvent mixture with a drug concentration of 3 % w/v exhibited the best in vitro aerosolization properties. The value of the fine particle fraction obtained for the engineered drug particles was 12-fold higher than that of the untreated CLX. When the concentration of CLX was increased, a remarkable reduction in FPF was obtained. The smallest median mass aerodynamic diameter was obtained from the electrosprayed CLX at a 3% concentration (2.82 µm) compared to 5% (3.25 µm) and untreated CLX (4.18 µm). DSC and FTIR experiments showed no change in drug crystallinity or structure of the prepared powders during the electrospraying process. The findings of this study suggest that electrospraying has potential applications in the preparation of DPI formulations.

Concomitant Effect of Quercetin and Its Copper Complex in the Development of Sustained-Release Nanoparticles of Polycaprolactone, Used for the Treatment of Skin Infection

The study aimed to improve the treatment of impetigo with naturally occurring quercetin and its copper-quercetin (Cu-Q) complex by preparing sustained-release (SR) nanoparticles of polycaprolactone (PCL). The solvent evaporation method was used for the copper-quercetin (Cu-Q) complex formation, and their PCL nanoparticles (PCL-NPs, Q-PCL-NPs, and Cu-Q-PCL-NPs) were prepared by the high-pressure homogenization method. Synthesis of nanoparticles was confirmed by their physicochemical and antibacterial properties of quercetin against Gram-positive as well as Gram-negative bacteria. The percentage loading efficiency of quercetin and release in 100 mM of phosphate buffer pH 7.4 and 5.5 at 37 °C was found to be more than 90% after 24 h with the zero-order release pattern. Minimum inhibitory concentration of nanoparticles was found to increase threefold in the case of Cu-Q-PCL-NPs may be due to the synergistic antibacterial behavior. Scanning electron microscopy showed spherical nanoparticles, and surface roughness was confirmed by atomic force microscopy analysis. Fortunately, no sign of irritation on rat skin even at 3%, was seen. In vitro antioxidant assay by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl reduction was found to be ≤80 ± 0.02% which confirmed their scavenging activity. Interestingly, for the ex vivo study, the tape-stripping model was applied against Staphylococcus aureus containing rats and showed the formation of the epidermal layer within 4-5 days. Confirmation of antibacterial activity of pure quercetin, from Cu-Q complex, and their SR release from Q-PCL-NPs and Cu-Q-PCL-NPs was considered an effective tool for the treatment of skin diseases and can be used as an alternative of already resistant ciprofloxacin in impetigo.

Synthesized nano particles of glimepiride via spray freezing into cryogenic liquid: characterization, antidiabetic activity, and bioavailability

The aim of this work was to formulate glimepiride (class II drug) which is characterized by low solubility and high permeability as nanostructured particles using a cryogenic technique with an aid of water-soluble polymer to improve its aqueous solubility and hence its bioavailability. 27 formula of glimepiride nano size particles were prepared by a spray freezing into cryogenic liquid (SCFL) using poly vinyl pyrrolidone K-30 (PVP K-30); that three drug polymer ratio (1:1, 1:2, and 1:3), with three different volumes of feeding solution (50, 100, 150 mL), at three flow rates (10, 20, and 30 mL/min). The prepared formulations were evaluated for production yield, particle size, zeta potential, drug content, release rate, in vivo hypoglycemic activity, and bioavailability. All prepared formulations showed high production yield and drug content ranged between 91.1 ± 3.4% and 94.3 ± 1.8% and 95.1 ± 2.8% and 97.1 ± 2.5%, respectively. The mean particles size was ranged between 280 ± 62 nm and 520 ± 30 nm. The results of in vitro release study revealed significant enhancement in the solubility of prepared formulations compared with the pure drug. It was found that optimal formula showed a significant reduction in blood glucose levels in diabetic rats, and 1.79-fold enhancements in oral bioavailability compared with market tablets. Nanoparticle prepared by SCFL method is an encouraging formula for improving the solubility and the bioavailability of glimepiride.

Enteric Polymer-Based Amorphous Solid Dispersions Enhance Oral Absorption of the Weakly Basic Drug Nintedanib via Stabilization of Supersaturation

The pH−induced crystallization of weakly basic drugs in the small intestine limits oral bioavailability. In this study, we investigated the solubilization and inhibitory effects on nintedanib in the presence of enteric polymers (HPMCAS LG, HPMCAS MG, Eudragit L100 55, and Eudragit L100). These polymers provided maintenance of supersaturation by increasing the solubility of nintedanib in PBS 6.8 in a concentration-dependent manner, and the improved ranking was as follows: Eudragit L100 > Eudragit L100 55 > HPMCAS MG > HPMCAS LG. After being formulated into amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) by a solvent evaporation method, the drug exhibited an amorphous state. The pH shift dissolution results of polymer-ASDs demonstrated that four polymers could effectively maintain the drug supersaturation even at the lowest ratio of nintedanib and polymer (1:1, w/w). Eudragit L100−ASD could provide both acid resistance and the favorable mitigation of crystallization in GIF. In comparison to the coarse drug, the relative bioavailability of Eudragit L100−ASD was 245% after oral administration in rats, and Tmax was markedly delayed from 2.8 ± 0.4 h to 5.3 ± 2.7 h. Our findings indicate that enteric ASDs are an effective strategy to increase the intestinal absorption of nintedanib by improving physiologically generated supersaturation and subsequent crystallization.

Novel drug delivery systems and disease models for pulmonary fibrosis

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a serious and progressive lung disease which is possibly life-threatening. It causes lung scarring and affects lung functions including epithelial cell injury, massive recruitment of immune cells and abnormal accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM). There is currently no cure for PF. Treatment for PF is aimed at slowing the course of the disease and relieving symptoms. Pirfenidone (PFD) and nintedanib (NDNB) are currently the only two FDA-approved oral medicines to slow down the progress of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a specific type of PF. Novel drug delivery systems and therapies have been developed to improve the prognosis of the disease, as well as reduce or minimize the toxicities during drug treatment. The drug delivery routes for these therapies are various including oral, intravenous, nasal, inhalant, intratracheal and transdermal; although this is dependent on specific treatment mechanisms. In addition, researchers have also expanded current animal models that could not fully restore the clinicopathology, and developed a series of in vitro models such as organoids to study the pathogenesis and treatment of PF. This review describes recent advances on pathogenesis exploration, classifies and specifies the progress of drug delivery systems by their delivery routes, as well as an overview on the in vitro and in vivo models for PF research.

Construction and Evaluation of Traceable rhES-QDs-M-MS Protein Delivery System: Sustained-Release Properties, Targeted Effect, and Antitumor Activity

Recombinant human endostatin (rhES) is a protein drug with poor stability and short in vivo circulation time. The present study was therefore aimed at developing sustained-release lung targeted microspheres drug delivery system and evaluating its targeting efficiency using in vivo imaging techniques with quantum dots (QDs) as the imaging material. The oil-soluble QDs were coated with amphiphilic polymers to obtain a polymer-quantum dots micelle (QDs-M) with the potential to stably disperse in water. The rhES and QDs-M were combined using covalent bonds. The rhES-QDs-M microspheres (rhES-QDs-M-MS) were prepared using electrostatic spray technology and also evaluated via in vivo imaging techniques. The pharmacodynamics was further studied in mice. The rhES-QDs-M-MS (4-8 μm) were stable in an aqueous medium with good optical properties. The in vitro studies showed that the rhES-QDs-M-MS had sustained release which was maintained for at least 15 days (cumulative release >80%) without any burst release. The rhES-QDs-M-MS had a very high safety profile and also effectively inhibited the in vitro proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells by about 70%. The pharmacokinetic results showed that the rhES could still be detected at 72 h in the experimental group which meant that the rhES-QDs-M-MS had a significant sustained-release effect. The rhES-QDs-M-MS had a better lung targeting effect and higher antitumor activity compared with the rhES. The traceable rhES-QDs-M-MS served as a promising drug delivery system for the poorly stable rhES proteins and significantly increased its lung-targeted effect, sustained-release properties, and antitumor activities.

Cationically modified inhalable nintedanib niosomes: enhancing therapeutic activity against non-small-cell lung cancer

Aim: This study was designed to develop and test nintedanib-loaded niosomes as inhalable carriers for enhancing its therapeutic efficacy via localized drug accumulation and addressing issues such as low bioavailability and severe toxicity. Methods: Niosomes were prepared by thin-film hydration method and were evaluated for in vitro therapeutic effectiveness in lung cancer cells. Results: The optimized niosomal formulation displayed optimized vesicle size, controlled and extended release of drug, and efficient aerodynamic properties indicating its suitability as an aerosolized formulation. In vitro studies revealed significantly superior cytotoxicity of nintedanib-loaded niosomes which was further validated by 3D spheroids. Conclusion: These findings establish the effectiveness of niosomes as inhalable delivery carriers which could serve as a promising strategy for delivery of nintedanib to treat several lung cancers.

Improving Outcomes of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: New Data and Ongoing Trials

Targeted therapies such as oral tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are the main therapeutic strategy effective for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Currently six tyrosine kinase inhibitors for HCC therapy have been approved. The newly approved first-line drug donafenib represent the major milestones in HCC therapeutics in recent years. However, drug resistance in HCC remains challenging due to random mutations in target receptors as well as downstream pathways. TKIs-based combinatorial therapies with immune checkpoint inhibitors such as PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies afford a promising strategy to further clinical application. Recent developments of nanoparticle-based TKI delivery techniques improve drug absorption and bioavailability, enhance efficient targeting delivery, prolonged circulation time, and reduce harmful side effects on normal tissues, which may improve the therapeutic efficacy of the TKIs. In this review, we summarize the milestones and recent progress in clinical trials of TKIs for HCC therapy. We also provide an overview of the novel nanoparticle-based TKI delivery techniques that enable efficient therapy.

Advances and challenges in nintedanib drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Nintedanib (N.T.B) is an orally administered tyrosine kinase inhibitor that has been approved recently by U.S.F.D.A for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (I.P.F) and systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease (S.Sc-I.L.D). N.T.B is also prescribed in COVID-19 patients associated with I.P.F. However, it has an extremely low bioavailability of around 4.7%, and hence, researchers are attempting to address this drawback by different approaches.

AREAS COVERED

This review article focuses on enlisting all the formulation attempts explored by researchers to increase the bioavailability of N.T.B while also providing meaningful insight into the unexplored areas in formulation development, such as targeting of the lymphatic system and transdermal delivery. All the patents on the formulation development of N.T.B have also been summarized.

EXPERT OPINION

N.T.B has the potential to act on multiple diseases that are still being discovered, but its extremely low bioavailability is a challenge that is to be dealt with for obtaining the full benefit. Few studies have been performed aiming at improving the bioavailability, but there are unexplored areas that can be used, a few of which are explained in this article. However, the ability to reproduce laboratory results when scaling up to the industry level is the only factor to be taken into consideration.

Sustained-Release Solid Dispersion of High-Melting-Point and Insoluble Resveratrol Prepared through Hot Melt Extrusion to Improve Its Solubility and Bioavailability

This study aimed to prepare a sustained-release solid dispersion of poorly water-soluble resveratrol (RES) with high melting point in a single hot melt extrusion step. A hydrophobic-hydrophilic polymeric blend (Eudragit RS and PEG6000) was used to control the release of RES. With the dispersive mixing and high shear forces of hot melt extrusion, the thermodynamic properties and dispersion of RES were changed to improve its solubility. The effects of the formulation were investigated through univariate analysis to optimize the preparation of the sustained-release solid dispersion. In vitro and in vivo studies were performed to evaluate the prepared RES/RS/PEG6000 sustained-release solid dispersion. The physical state of the solid dispersion was characterized using differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction. Surface properties of the dispersion were visualized using scanning electron microscopy, and the chemical interaction between RES and excipients was detected through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Results suggested that the optimized sustained-release solid dispersion was obtained when the mass ratio of RES-polymeric blend was 1:5, the ratio of PEG6000 was 35%, the barrel temperature was 170 °C, and the screw speed was 80 rpm. In vitro studies demonstrated that the solid dispersion showed a good sustained release effect. The cumulative release of RES reached 82.42% until 12 h and was fit by the Weibull model. In addition, the saturated solubility was 2.28 times higher than that of the bulk RES. In vitro studies demonstrated that the half-life increased from 3.78 to 7.09 h, and the bioavailability improved to 140.38%. The crystalline RES was transformed into the amorphous one, and RES was highly dispersed in the polymeric blend matrix.

Superhydrophobic Surface for Enhancing the Bioavailability of Salbutamol Sulfate from Cross-Linked Microspheres: Formulation, Characterization, and in vivo Evaluation

Introduction

The aim of the work was to formulate salbutamol sulfate (SB) microspheres by using superhydrophobic surface (SHS) under different processing factors for improving its encapsulation efficiency, controling its release rate, and hence enhancing its bioavailability.

Methods

Cross-linked microspheres of chitosan (CN) and carrageenan (KN) were made on a SHS under a glutaraldehyde-saturated atmosphere. The formulations were designed and optimized based on 4² factorial design. Percentage encapsulation efficiency (%EE), particle size, swelling ratio, and in vitro release rate were characterized, and the in vivo performance of optimized formula was investigated in beagle dogs.

Results

The results showed that the prepared microspheres have a high %EE (97.11±0.78%) for F13. The swelling ratio was 4.2 at the end of the 8 hours for the optimized formula, and the in vitro release rate was controlled for 12 hours. In vivo study verified that there was a 1.61-fold enhancement in SB bioavailability from optimized formula (F13) compared to market tablet.

Conclusion

The study suggested that microspheres prepared from CN/KN crosslinking on an SHS using glutaraldehyde atmosphere is a promising technique that can encapsulate and sustain the release of water-soluble drugs such as SB in addition to improving its in vivo pharmacokinetic profile.

Inhibiting TGF-[Formula: see text] 1-Mediated Cellular Processes as an Effective Strategy for the Treatment of Pulmonary Fibrosis with Chinese Herbal Medicines

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a chronic and irreversible interstitial lung disease that even threatens the lives of some patients infected with COVID-19. PF is a multicellular pathological process, including the initial injuries of epithelial cells, recruitment of inflammatory cells, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, activation and differentiation of fibroblasts, etc. TGF-[Formula: see text]1 acts as a key effect factor that participates in these cellular processes of PF. Recently, much attention was paid to inhibiting TGF-[Formula: see text]1 mediated cell processes in the treatment of PF with Chinese herbal medicines (CHM), an important part of traditional Chinese medicine. Here, this review first summarized the effects of TGF-[Formula: see text]1 in different cellular processes of PF. Then, this review summarized the recent research on CHM (compounds, multi-components, single medicines and prescriptions) to directly and/or indirectly inhibit TGF-[Formula: see text]1 signaling (TLRs, PPARs, micrRNA, etc.) in PF. Most of the research focused on CHM natural compounds, including but not limited to alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols and terpenes. After review, the research perspectives of CHM on TGF-[Formula: see text]1 inhibition in PF were further discussed. This review hopes that revealing the inhibiting effects of CHM on TGF-[Formula: see text]1-mediated cellular processes of PF can promote CHM to be better understood and utilized, thus transforming the therapeutic activities of CHM into practice.

Preparation and Evaluation of Recombinant Human Erythropoietin Loaded Tween 80-Albumin Nanoparticle for Traumatic Brain Injury Treatment

OBJECTIVE

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious health problem with few available treatment options. Rh-erythropoietin (rh-EPO) is a potential therapeutic drug for TBI, but it cannot cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) directly. In this regard, a novel strategy to deliver rh-EPO for enhanced TBI treatment is via the development of Tween 80 modified albumin nanoparticles using electrostatic spray technology.

METHODS

The rh-EPO loaded Tween 80 modified albumin nanoparticles (rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs) were prepared by electrostatic spray technology, while the process parameters were optimized via a single factor design. Investigation of physicochemical properties, bioactivity and stability of rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs was carried out. The in vitro release and biocompatibility with nerve cells were also analyzed. The in vivo brain targeting efficiency, brain edema relieving effect and the expression of aquaporin 4 (AQP4) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the brain were evaluated in TBI model rats.

RESULTS

The particle size of optimal rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs was about 438 ± 45 nm, with a zeta potential of -25.42 ± 0.8 mv. The average drug loading ratio of rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs was 21.3± 3.7 IU/mg with a relative bioactivity of 91.6 ± 4.1%. The in vitro release of rh-EPO from the nanoparticles was rather slow, while neither the blank Tw-ABNPs nor rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs exhibited toxicity on the microglia cells. Furthermore, in vivo experiments indicated that the rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs could enhance the distribution of EPO in the brain and relieve brain edema more effectively. Moreover, compared with an rh-EPO injection, the rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs could increase the AQP4 level but reduced GFAP expression in the brain with more efficiency.

CONCLUSION

The rh-EPO-Tw-ABNPs could enhance the transport of rh-EPO into the brain with superior therapeutic effect for TBI.

Enhancement of Oral Bioavailability of Ibandronate Through Gastroretentive Raft Forming Drug Delivery System: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Background

Bisphosphonates have very low bioavailability and cause irritation of the esophagus and stomach. This study was planned to improve the oral bioavailability of ibandronate through the formation of a raft in the stomach. Bisphosphonate-induced irritation of the esophagus and stomach is prevented by the formation of a raft.

Materials and Methods

The nanostructured raft was developed through the use of nanosized citrus pectin (NCP). The particle size of NCP was measured by zeta sizer and SEM. The percentage of NCP and the neutralization profile of raft was studied. The ibandronate, polymers, and the developed formulation were characterized by FTIR, XRD, TGA, and DSC. The release of ibandronate was studied in 0.1 N HCl, 0.5 N HCl, 1 N HCl, and simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and a cell viability study was performed using Caco-2 cells. The PPR5 formulation and Bonish 150 mg tablets were selected as test and reference formulations, respectively, for pharmacokinetic study. Twelve healthy albino rats were taken and divided into two groups using a Latin square crossover design, and the blood samples were collected for 24 hours.

Results

The SEM image showed that the particle size of NCP was 159 nm. The raft of PPR5 showed 94% NCP and 45 minutes duration of neutralization. The FTIR and XRD showed chemical stability and a uniform distribution of ibandronate in the raft. The TGA and DSC indicated the thermal stability of formulation. The release of 99.87% ibandronate at 20 minutes was observed in the SGF. The values of C _max for the reference and test formulations were 493±0.237 ng/mL and 653±0.097 ng/mL, respectively. The AUC_(0-t) of the reference and test formulations was 3708.25±3.418 ng/mL.h and 6899.25±3.467 ng/mL.h, respectively.

Conclusion

The NCP has been successfully prepared from citrus pectin and has shown effective porous raft formation. The bioavailability of the ibandronate from newly developed PPR5 was higher than the already marketed formulation.

Improving The Oral Absorption Of Nintedanib By A Self-Microemulsion Drug Delivery System: Preparation And In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation

OBJECTIVE

Nintedanib (NDNB) is a triple receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor with poor solubility in neutral conditions and low bioavailability. A self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) of NDNB was developed to improve drug solubility in physical conditions and absorption in vivo.

METHODS

The NDNB-SMEDDS formulation was optimized via pseudo-ternary phase diagrams. The physicochemical properties of NDNB-SMEDDS, viz., morphological observation, droplet size, stability, compatibility and in vitro release were investigated. The permeability of NDNB-SMEDDS was detected using both a Caco-2 cell monolayer in vitro and an intestinal perfusion study in vivo. Furthermore, the pharmacokinetic characteristics of NDNB-SMEDDS were evaluated.

RESULTS

The optimal formulation was composed of MCT as an oil phase, RH 40 as a surfactant and ethylene glycol as a co-surfactant. The average droplet size of the microemulsion was about 23 nm with good stability within 30 days. The formulation did not exhibit any obvious cytotoxic effect on Caco-2 cells. Permeability of nintedanib in a Caco-2 cell monolayer was enhanced by 2.8-fold upon incorporation in SMEDDS compared with the drug solution. The intestinal perfusion study demonstrated that the P app of NDNB-SMEDDS increased by 3.0-fold in the entire intestine and 3.2-fold in the colon in comparison with the drug solution. The pharmacokinetics study showed that the AUC of the NDNB-SMEDDS increased significantly.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that the self-microemulsion formulations could improve the absorption of nintedanib, and can thus serve as a promising carrier for the oral delivery of nintedanib.

Harnessing the therapeutic potential of anticancer drugs through amorphous solid dispersions

The treatment of cancer is still a major challenge. But tremendous progress in anticancer drug discovery and development has occurred in the last few decades. However, this progress has resulted in few effective oncology products due to challenges associated with anticancer drug delivery. Oral administration is the most preferred route for anticancer drug delivery, but the majority of anticancer drugs currently in product pipelines and the majority of those that have been commercially approved have inherently poor water solubility, and this cannot be mitigated without compromising their potency and stability. The poor water solubility of anticancer drugs, in conjunction with other factors, leads to suboptimal pharmacokinetic performance. Thus, these drugs have limited efficacy and safety when administered orally. The amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) is a promising formulation technology that primarily enhances the aqueous solubility of poorly water-soluble drugs. In this review, we discuss the challenges associated with the oral administration of anticancer drugs and the use of ASD technology in alleviating these challenges. We emphasize the ability of ASDs to improve not only the pharmacokinetics of poorly water-soluble anticancer drugs, but also their efficacy and safety. The goal of this paper is to rationalize the application of ASD technology in the formulation of anticancer drugs, thereby creating superior oncology products that lead to improved therapeutic outcomes.