Self-Assembled Dual-Targeted Epirubicin-Hybrid Polydopamine Nanoparticles for Combined Chemo-Photothermal Therapy of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Natural melanin: from biological functions to biofunctionalized nanoparticles in advanced biomedicine

Melanin nanoparticles (MNPs) are multifunctional, bioinspired nanomaterials that have become a versatile platform for biomedical and technological applications due to their unique physicochemical properties. MNPs, derived from natural or synthetic melanin precursors, are distinguished by their ease of synthesis, low toxicity, and excellent biocompatibility, making them highly promising for applications in stimuli-responsive drug delivery, high-resolution medical imaging, real-time tumor theranostics, and targeted photothermal therapy. This review offers an in-depth overview of recent progress in the sources, synthesis methods, characterization techniques, and diverse applications of MNPs. Their inherent antioxidant properties, effectiveness in stimuli-responsive drug delivery, high photothermal conversion efficiency, and strong biocompatibility highlight their potential as promising agents for cancer treatment, targeted nanomedicine, and real-time diagnostic imaging. Furthermore, the ability of MNPs to integrate both therapeutic and diagnostic functions (theranostics) offers a promising solution to key challenges in precision medicine. This review emphasizes the growing importance of sustainable, low-toxicity nanomaterials, especially in growing global health challenges such as drug-resistant cancers and neurodegenerative diseases. By combining insights from materials science, nanotechnology, and biomedicine, this work highlights the transformative potential of MNPs while addressing key challenges and outlining future research directions.

Improved epirubicin delivery selectivity to bladder cancer achieved by functionalized hydroxyethyl starch-based prodrug

Bladder instillation of chemo-therapeutic agents is common for bladder cancer (BC) treatment, however, due to the poor tissue selectivity of chemotherapeutic agents, this method suffers from bladder irritation or even chemical cystitis. Here, we designed a hydroxyethyl starch-based prodrug for epirubicin (EPI) using a pH-sensitive hydrazone linker and folate as the active targeting moiety (FA-HES-hyd-EPI) to achieve delivery selectivity. Prodrug micelles decorated with FA (FA-m), with diameter of 203.6 ± 7.1 nm and EPI loading of 5.80 ± 0.129 %, were prepared by self-assemble method. FA-m was found with improved cellular uptake and stronger cytotoxicity over EPI. An orthotopic BC model was established with FA receptor over-expression, and FA-m showed significantly higher accumulation at tissue and cell levels compared with the FA-free counterpart. Besides, the systemic exposure of FA-m was significantly lower than EPI (AUC0-t: 28.11 ± 7.23 ng/mL/h versus 11.60 ± 4.27 ng/mL/h). More importantly, FA-m showed stronger in vivo tumor growth inhibition with average tumor weight of 0.26 ± 0.21 mg (EPI group: 1.695 ± 0.62 mg), and better safety according to body weight and HE staining data. Overall, the combination of active targeting and pH responsive prodrug strategies was a feasible way to achieve selective EPI delivery to BC via instillation that improved both therapeutic effect and safety.

Curcumin-Loaded Long-Circulation Liposomes Ameliorate Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetic Mice

Introduction

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a metabolic disorder characterised by insulin resistance, hyperglycaemia, and inflammation, with oxidative stress contributing to its progression. Curcumin (CUR), known for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and insulin sensitising effects, has shown potential for the treatment of T2DM but is limited by low solubility and bioavailability. This study investigated long-circulating curcumin-loaded liposomes (CUR-LPs) to improve curcumin stability, solubility, and circulation and assessed their effect on insulin resistance in a murine model of T2DM.

Methods

CUR-LPs were prepared using the ethanol injection method and characterized for morphology, particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, drug-loading capacity, and in vitro release. Cell viability was tested on murine L929 cells. In a T2DM murine model, after four weeks of CUR-LP treatment, inflammatory markers TNF-α and IL-6 were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction, and liver tissues were analyzed for glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) via colorimetry.

Results

CUR-LPs were spherical, with an average diameter of (249 ± 2.3) nm and a zeta potential of (-33.5 ± 0.8) mV. They exhibited an encapsulation efficiency of (99.2 ± 0.5) %and a drug-loading capacity of (1.63 ± 0.02) %. CUR embedding in liposomes significantly maintained CUR release. In L929 cells, over 80% viability was maintained at 12 uM CUR concentration after 24 h. In HFD/STZ-induced T2DM mice, CUR-LPs improved blood glucose and insulin levels more efficiently than free CUR, and CUR-LPs also reduced hepatic inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6), enhanced hepatic GSH and SOD, and attenuated liver injury.

Conclusion

CUR-LPs improved glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in HFD/STZ-induced T2DM mice, which may be associated with a decrease in liver inflammation and oxidative stress.

Folic acid modified precision nanocarriers: charting new frontiers in breast cancer management beyond conventional therapies

Breast cancer presents a significant global health challenge, ranking highest incidence rate among all types of cancers. Functionalised nanocarriers offer a promising solution for precise drug delivery by actively targeting cancer cells through specific receptors, notably folate receptors. By overcoming the limitations of passive targeting in conventional therapies, this approach holds the potential for enhanced treatment efficacy through combination therapy. Encouraging outcomes from studies like in vitro and in vivo, underscore the promise of this innovative approach. This review explores the therapeutic potential of FA (Folic acid) functionalised nanocarriers tailored for breast cancer management, discussing various chemical modification techniques for functionalization. It examines FA-conjugated nanocarriers containing chemotherapeutics to enhance treatment efficacy and addresses the pharmacokinetic aspect of these functionalised nanocarriers. Additionally, the review integrates active targeting via folic acid with theranostics, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy, offering a comprehensive management strategy. Emphasising rigorous experimental validation for practical utility, the review underscores the need to bridge laboratory research to clinical application. While these functionalised nanocarriers show promise, their credibility and applicability in real-world settings necessitate thorough validation for effective clinical use.

Advances and perspectives in phototherapy-based combination therapy for cancer treatment

Phototherapy, including photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), has the advantages of spatiotemporal selectivity, non-invasiveness, and negligible drug resistance. Phototherapy has been approved for treating superficial epidermal tumors. However, its therapeutic efficacy is limited by the hypoxic tumor microenvironment and the highly expressed heat shock protein. Moreover, poor tissue penetration and focused irradiation laser region in phototherapy make treating deep tissues and metastatic tumors challenging. Combination therapy strategies, which integrate the advantages of each treatment and overcome their disadvantages, can significantly improve the therapeutic efficacy. Recently, many combination therapy strategies have been reported. Our study summarizes the strategies used for combining phototherapy with other cancer treatments such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, sonodynamic therapy, gas therapy, starvation therapy, and chemodynamic therapy. Some research cases were selected to analyze the combination therapy effect, delivery platform feature, and synergetic anticancer mechanisms. Moreover, additional research cases are summarized in the tables. This review provides strong evidence that phototherapy-based combination strategies can enhance the anticancer effect compared with phototherapy alone. Additionally, the challenges and future perspectives associated with these combinational therapies are discussed.

Meta-Analysis of Nanoparticle Distribution in Tumors and Major Organs in Tumor-Bearing Mice

Low tumor delivery efficiency is a critical barrier in cancer nanomedicine. This study reports an updated version of "Nano-Tumor Database", which increases the number of time-dependent concentration data sets for different nanoparticles (NPs) in tumors from the previous version of 376 data sets with 1732 data points from 200 studies to the current version of 534 data sets with 2345 data points from 297 studies published from 2005 to 2021. Additionally, the current database includes 1972 data sets for five major organs (i.e., liver, spleen, lung, heart, and kidney) with a total of 8461 concentration data points. Tumor delivery and organ distribution are calculated using three pharmacokinetic parameters, including delivery efficiency, maximum concentration, and distribution coefficient. The median tumor delivery efficiency is 0.67% injected dose (ID), which is low but is consistent with previous studies. Employing the best regression model for tumor delivery efficiency, we generate hypothetical scenarios with different combinations of NP factors that may lead to a higher delivery efficiency of >3%ID, which requires further experimentation to confirm. In healthy organs, the highest NP accumulation is in the liver (10.69%ID/g), followed by the spleen 6.93%ID/g and the kidney 3.22%ID/g. Our perspective on how to facilitate NP design and clinical translation is presented. This study reports a substantially expanded "Nano-Tumor Database" and several statistical models that may help nanomedicine design in the future.

Recent advances in nanoparticle-based photothermal therapy for breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women that is associated with high mortality. Conventional treatments including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, which are not effective enough and have disadvantages such as toxicity and damage to healthy cells. Photothermal therapy (PTT) of cancer cells has been took great attention by researchers in recent years due to the use of light radiation and heat generation at the tumor site, which thermal ablation is considered a minimally invasive method for the treatment of breast cancer. Nanotechnology has opened up a new perspective in the treatment of breast cancer using PTT method. Through NIR light absorption, researchers applied various nanostructures because of their specific nature of penetrating and targeting tumor tissue, increasing the effectiveness of PTT, and combining it with other treatments. If PTT is used with common cancer treatments, it can dramatically increase the effectiveness of treatment and reduce the side effects of other methods. PTT performance can also be improved by hybridizing at least two different nanomaterials. Nanoparticles that intensely absorb light and increase the efficiency of converting light into heat can specifically kill tumors through hyperthermia of cancer cells. One of the main reasons that have increased the efficiency of nanoparticles in PTT is their permeability and durability effect and they can accumulate in tumor tissue. Targeted PTT can be provided by incorporating specific ligands to target receptors expressed on the surface of cancer cells on nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can specifically target cancer cells by maintaining the surface area and increasing penetration. In this study, we briefly introduce the performance of light therapy, application of metal nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles, and hybrid nanoparticles for use in PTT of breast cancer.

Liposomal Co-delivery of PD-L1 siRNA/Anemoside B4 for Enhanced Combinational Immunotherapeutic Effect

Combination therapy has gained a lot of attention thanks to its superior activity against cancer. In the present study, we report a cRGD-targeted liposomal preparation for co-delivery of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) small interfering RNA (siRNA) and anemoside B4 (AB4)─AB4/siP-c-L─and evaluate its anticancer efficiency in mouse models of LLC and 4T1 tumors. AB4/siP-c-L showed a particle size of (180.7 ± 7.3) nm and a ζ-potential of (32.8 ± 1.5) mV, with high drug encapsulation, pH-sensitive release properties, and good stability in serum. AB4/siP-c-L demonstrated prolonged blood circulation and increased tumor accumulation. Elevated cellular uptake was dependent on the targeting ligand cRGD. This combination induced significant tumor inhibition in LLC xenograft tumor-bearing mice by downregulating PD-L1 protein expression and modulating the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Liposomes favored the antitumor T-cell response with long-term memory, without obvious toxicity. A similar tumor growth inhibition was also demonstrated in the 4T1 tumor model. In summary, our results indicate that cRGD-modified and AB4- and PD-L1 siRNA-coloaded liposomes have potential as an antitumor preparation, and this approach may lay a foundation for the development of a new targeted drug delivery system.

Construction of Double-Shelled Hollow Ag2S@Polydopamine Nanocomposites for Fluorescence-Guided, Dual Stimuli-Responsive Drug Delivery and Photothermal Therapy

The design and preparation of multifunctional drug carriers for combined photothermal–chemotherapy of cancer have attracted extensive attention over the past few decades. However, the development of simple-structured stimuli-responsive theranostic agents as both photothermal agents and chemotherapeutic agents remains a big challenge. Herein, a novel double-shelled nanocarrier composed of hollow Ag₂S (HAg₂S) nanospheres and a mesoporous polydopamine (MPDA) exterior shell was fabricated through a facile process. Notably, HAg₂S possesses both fluorescence and photothermal properties. MPDA acts as a drug carrier and photothermal agent. Meanwhile, the cavity structure between HAg₂S and MPDA provides more space for drug loading. The nanocarrier presents a high drug loading rate of 23.4%. It exhibits an apparent pH-responsive DOX release property due to the acidic sensitivity of PDA. In addition, the release of DOX is promoted under NIR irradiation, which is attributed to the heating action generated by the photothermal effect of HAg₂S and MPDA. The cytotoxicity test shows that the nanocarriers possess good biocompatibility. Compared with single photothermal therapy or chemotherapy, the combined treatment represents a synergistic effect with higher therapeutic efficacy. In addition, the nanocarriers exhibit excellent fluorescence imaging capability and can target HepG2 cells. These simple-structured smart nanocarriers have a great potential for fluorescence-mediated combination cancer therapy.

Melanin and Melanin-Functionalized Nanoparticles as Promising Tools in Cancer Research-A Review

Cancer poses an ongoing global challenge, despite the substantial progress made in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease. The existing therapeutic methods remain limited by undesirable outcomes such as systemic toxicity and lack of specificity or long-term efficacy, although innovative alternatives are being continuously investigated. By offering a means for the targeted delivery of therapeutics, nanotechnology (NT) has emerged as a state-of-the-art solution for augmenting the efficiency of currently available cancer therapies while combating their drawbacks. Melanin, a polymeric pigment of natural origin that is widely spread among many living organisms, became a promising candidate for NT-based cancer treatment owing to its unique physicochemical properties (e.g., high biocompatibility, redox behavior, light absorption, chelating ability) and innate antioxidant, photoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects. The latest research on melanin and melanin-like nanoparticles has extended considerably on many fronts, allowing not only efficient cancer treatments via both traditional and modern methods, but also early disease detection and diagnosis. The current paper provides an updated insight into the applicability of melanin in cancer therapy as antitumor agent, molecular target, and delivery nanoplatform.

Semisynthesis and Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Germacrane-Type Sesquiterpene Lactones from Elephantopus scaber

Two series of germacrane-type sesquiterpene lactones were produced by semisynthetic modulation of scaberol C, which was prepared by a standard chemical transformation from an Elephantopus scaber extract. Their inhibition activities against non-small-cell lung cancer cells were screened, and preliminary structure-activity relationships were also established. Among them, monomeric analog 1u and dimeric analog 3d exhibited superior anti-non-small-cell lung cancer cytotoxic potencies with IC50 values of 4.3 and 0.7 μM against A549 cells, respectively, and were more active than cisplatin and the standard sesquiterpene lactones, parthenolide and scabertopin. Further studies revealed that compounds 1u and 3d cause G2/M phase arrest and induce apoptosis through the activation of mitochondrial pathways in A549 cells. Collectively, the results obtained suggest that compounds 1u and 3d are promising anti-non-small-cell lung cancer lead compounds.

Mesoporous Doxorubicin-Loaded Polydopamine Nanoparticles Coated with a Platelet Membrane Suppress Tumor Growth in a Murine Model of Human Breast Cancer

Bringing together photothermal therapy and chemotherapy (photothermal-chemotherapy, PT-CT) is a highly promising clinical approach but requires the development of intelligent multifunctional delivery vectors. In this work, we prepared mesoporous polydopamine nanoparticles (MPDA NPs) loaded with the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX). These NPs were then coated with the platelet membrane (PLTM). The coated MPDA NPs are spherical and clearly mesoporous in structure. They have a particle size of approximately 184 nm and pore size of ca. 45 nm. The NPs are potent photothermal agents and efficient DOX carriers, with increased rates of drug release observed in vitro in conditions representative of the tumor microenvironment. The NPs are preferentially taken up by cancer cells but not by macrophage cells, and while cytocompatible with healthy cells are highly toxic to cancer cells. An in vivo murine model of human breast cancer revealed that the NPs can markedly slow the growth of a tumor (ca. 9-fold smaller after 14 days' treatment), have extended pharmacokinetics compared to free DOX (with DOX still detectable in the bloodstream after 24 h when the NPs are applied), and are highly targeted with minimal off-site effects on the heart, liver, spleen, kidney, and lungs.

Traditional herbal medicine and nanomedicine: Converging disciplines to improve therapeutic efficacy and human health

Traditional herbal medicine (THM), an ancient science, is a gift from nature. For thousands of years, it has helped humans fight diseases and protect life, health, and reproduction. Nanomedicine, a newer discipline has evolved from exploitation of the unique nanoscale morphology and is widely used in diagnosis, imaging, drug delivery, and other biomedical fields. Although THM and nanomedicine differ greatly in time span and discipline dimensions, they are closely related and are even evolving toward integration and convergence. This review begins with the history and latest research progress of THM and nanomedicine, expounding their respective developmental trajectory. It then discusses the overlapping connectivity and relevance of the two fields, including nanoaggregates generated in herbal medicine decoctions, the application of nanotechnology in the delivery and treatment of natural active ingredients, and the influence of physiological regulatory capability of THM on the in vivo fate of nanoparticles. Finally, future development trends, challenges, and research directions are discussed.