Current perspectives on the optimal age to spay/castrate dogs and cats

Systematic Review: Does Pre-Pubertal Spaying Reduce the Risk of Canine Mammary Tumours?

BACKGROUND

Ovariectomy and ovariohysterectomy (spaying) are two surgical procedures commonly performed on dogs. However, the optimum age at which to perform these procedures in dogs remains a contentious issue. Following work published in the 1960s, pre-pubertal spaying became popular largely on the basis that it reduced the risk of mammary cancer development. However, a systematic review published more than 10 years ago questioned this. The objective of this study was to examine the strength and direction of updated literature on the relationship between spaying age of dogs and mammary tumour development and to investigate whether the evidence has changed.

METHOD

A systematic review was conducted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. In March 2023, peer-reviewed articles were collected from three databases (CAB direct, Web of Science, and PubMed). Articles were excluded if they were not in English, not peer-reviewed, not relevant to PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison and Outcome), or if the study investigated the effects of desexing on canines with mammary tumours already or of the prognosis and not development of mammary tumours.

RESULTS

Of 232 articles obtained from the initial database search, 13 articles were found to meet the inclusion criteria. Six out of the thirteen papers selected found no evidence of a protective effect of early spaying against mammary tumour development.

CONCLUSION

This review suggests that further breed-specific studies with matched controls on the main risk factors would help address issues such as lack of appropriate statistical analysis, control of biases, and confounding risk factors. The benefits of early spaying should be balanced with other considerations about the optimal age for spaying dogs.

Echocardiographic indices probe during dexmedetomidine/midazolam - ketamine anesthesia in dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy

Cardiovascular and respiratory alterations during anesthesia are of major concern in canines. Thus, it is essential to understand the potential depressant effects of anesthetic drugs on cardio-vascular system; so that, anesthetic procedures are conducted in the best possible way. The objective of the study was to assess and compare the echocardiographic indices during dex-medetomidine and midazolam anesthesia in dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy. Twenty-eight female dogs brought to the department for elective ovariohysterectomy were randomly divided into two groups comprising of 14 each. Sedation was achieved with dex-medetomidine and GMID. Physiological parameters and echocardiographic indices were evaluated before drug administration (T0), after 10 min of sedation (T1), after induction (T2) and at the end of surgery (T3) in both groups. Heart rate was significantly higher at T1, T2 and T3; while, rectal temperature was significantly lower at T3 in GMID compared to the GDEX. There was a significant decrease in stroke volume and cardiac output values at T1 and then, a significant increase at T2; whereas, there was a non-significant decrease at T3 in both groups. Ejection fraction and fractional shortening values decreased significantly at T1, increased significantly at T2 and then, decreased significantly at the end of surgery (T3). Dexmedetomidine-ketamine and midazolam-ketamine combinations provide better hemodynamic and respiratory stability in the dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy. Systolic functions were minimally altered with GMID compared to GDEX. Thus, GMID is more cardio stable compared to GDEX.

Effect of neutering timing in relation to puberty on health in the female dog-a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Effects of neutering on bitch health have been reported, and are suggested to relate to bitch age at the time of neutering for some diseases. However, variation between published studies in terms of study populations and methodologies makes comparison and consolidation of the evidence difficult.

OBJECTIVE

A scoping review was designed to systematically search the available literature to identify and chart the evidence on the effect of neutering timing in relation to puberty on five health outcomes: atopy, developmental orthopaedic disease (DOD), neoplasia, obesity and urogenital disease.

DESIGN

A protocol was registered, and literature searches were conducted in CAB Abstracts, Medline and Web of Science. Studies were reviewed against inclusion criteria. Data on study and population characteristics and health outcomes were charted for the final included studies.

RESULTS

A total of 1,145 publications were reviewed across all five searches; 33 were retained for inclusion and charting. Only six of the 33 studies categorised the timing of surgical neutering as prepubertal or post-pubertal; one investigating mammary neoplasia and the other five, urogenital disease, commonly urinary incontinence. No studies were identified that examined the impacts of neutering bitches before or after puberty on atopy, DOD or obesity. One study considered bitches that were pre or post-pubertal at the time of the first treatment with deslorelin acetate for oestrus suppression and 26 examined the effects on health related to age, rather than pubertal status, at neutering.

CONCLUSION

This scoping review suggests that robust evidence to support veterinarians, those working with dogs and dog owners when discussing the timing of neutering relative to puberty does not yet exist. The impact of neutering before or after puberty on atopy, DOD, neoplasia, obesity and urogenital disease in female domesticated dogs remains unclear.

Male animal sterilization: history, current practices, and potential methods for replacing castration

Sterilization and castration have been synonyms for thousands of years. Making an animal sterile meant to render them incapable of producing offspring. Castration or the physical removal of the testes was discovered to be the most simple but reliable method for managing reproduction and sexual behavior in the male. Today, there continues to be global utilization of castration in domestic animals. More than six hundred million pigs are castrated every year, and surgical removal of testes in dogs and cats is a routine practice in veterinary medicine. However, modern biological research has extended the meaning of sterilization to include methods that spare testis removal and involve a variety of options, from chemical castration and immunocastration to various methods of vasectomy. This review begins with the history of sterilization, showing a direct link between its practice in man and animals. Then, it traces the evolution of concepts for inducing sterility, where research has overlapped with basic studies of reproductive hormones and the discovery of testicular toxicants, some of which serve as sterilizing agents in rodent pests. Finally, the most recent efforts to use the immune system and gene editing to block hormonal stimulation of testis function are discussed. As we respond to the crisis of animal overpopulation and strive for better animal welfare, these novel methods provide optimism for replacing surgical castration in some species.

Risk factor analysis and clinicopathological characteristics of female dogs with mammary tumours from a single-center retrospective study in Poland

This is a comprehensive retrospective study to characterize female dogs with canine mammary tumors (CMTs) using a dataset retrieved from the archives of the Division of Animal Pathology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine in Warsaw, and to identify prognostic factors. Clinical and histopathological data of 1447 dogs with CMTs were included. Malignant tumours were found in 83.3% (n = 1206), benign tumours in 11.7% (n = 169), and non-neoplastic lesions in 5.0% (n = 72) of dogs. Dogs most often had grade II carcinomas (38.2%, 215/562) of a single histological subtype (88.5%, 1281/1447), mostly simple carcinoma (35.3%, 510/1447). Dogs with a median age of 10 years significantly often had larger (≥ 3 cm) and malignant CMTs, whereas intact females had smaller tumours (median size 2.0 cm). However, the threshold value for the age of the dog in the differentiation of malignant and non-neoplastic/benign masses could not be determined. Most females were hormonally active (76.4%, 372/487). Hormonally active dogs significantly more often had multiple tumours. Multiple tumours were significantly smaller (median 2.5 cm) than single ones. Among pedigree dogs, small-breed dogs were mostly recorded (43%, 428/1006). Twelve breeds had an increased risk of CMTs, regardless of tumour behaviour, compared with the theoretical distribution of pedigree dogs in Poland. Four breeds were often affected only by malignant and other four breeds only by non-neoplastic/benign CMT. Large-breed dogs were significantly younger and affected by larger CMT (median 4 cm) compared with small- and medium-breed dogs. Ninety dogs with a malignant CMT and complete records were included in the full analysis of CMT-specific survival (CMT-SS) with a median follow-up time of 20.0 months. We showed that the timing of ovariohysterectomy in relation to mastectomy was significantly associated with grade, CMT-SS, and CMT-related death. We indicated the low diagnostic accuracy of palpation of regional lymph nodes (RLN) in the prediction of their metastatic involvement. By multivariable analysis, dogs with neoplastic emboli, tumour ulceration, and simple or complex carcinoma had a significantly higher risk of local recurrence. Tumour size > 3 cm was as a strong independent predictor of lung metastases. Compared with dogs with an easily separated localized tumour, dogs with a multiple/diffuse malignant CMT pattern had a fivefold higher risk of death. The risk of death was significantly higher in the presence of neoplastic emboli (~ fivefold) and tumour ulceration (~ fourfold). Furthermore, the presence of neoplastic emboli and large tumour size were independent predictors of CMT-related death.

Controversial Topics in Animal Welfare in Latin America: A Focus on the Legislation Surrounding the Human-Companion Animal Relationship and Animals Used for Recreational Practices

Animal welfare is a societally relevant issue that is globally attracting increased attention. This is in addition to the importance placed on welfare for the animals themselves. However, the content and application of laws protecting animals' welfare vary across countries. In Latin America, there are a range of common practices or activities involving certain animal species, many of which are legal, that can impair an animal's quality of life. These include the performance of aesthetic surgical procedures; bull-, cock-, and dog fighting; and the existence of circuses that exhibit animals. The extent and impact of these practices being dependent on the socioeconomic, cultural, territorial, and regulatory landscape of each country. Particularly, Ibero-American regions face welfare challenges that might be influenced by traditions and relevant legal gaps. The objective of this article is to review controversial practices carried out in companion and entertainment animals in Latin America, with a focus on legal aspects, as well as the current efforts being made to address and incorporate global welfare standards into domestic and wild animal practice and regulation.

Technology for Improving Street Dog Welfare and Capturing Data in Digital Format during Street Dog Sterilisation Programmes

Simple Summary

Humane Society International (HSI) facilitates dog sterilisation programmes internationally, which includes population surveys of street dogs to gain basic demographic information and to set a baseline for future monitoring operations. HSI has developed a web and mobile application suite called ‘HSIApps’ with custom tailored workflows to improve the efficiency (lower programmatic cost) and improve the welfare of dogs in care throughout the sterilisation process. The Android-based mobile app is simple and easy to use for teams in the field. The web app has data dashboards, record views, and reports for monitoring and evaluation purposes. The use of such digital applications can improve dog population management programme implementation, ensure positive outcomes for dogs postoperatively, and facilitate programmatic monitoring and evaluation. We describe here the use of this application and insights gained through its use in HSI’s street dog monitoring, evaluation, and impact assessment (MEIA) programmes in India.

Abstract

Street dogs survive on food handouts provided by individuals, or the wider community yet typically receive limited to no veterinary care. They can also carry a variety of zoonotic diseases such as rabies, posing a significant risk to human and dog population health. Dog sterilisation is one of the most humane and effective methods available to control street dog populations. Dog sterilisation programmes, particularly those operating at a large-scale, often face a variety of challenges including limited resources, staffing, and less-than-ideal facilities. Recordkeeping is often a challenge as well, which can complicate the return of a sterilised dog to their location of capture. Street dogs are territorial, and the return of a dog to an incorrect location is fraught with various welfare issues, as well as an increased risk of postoperative complications, including death. Humane Society International developed a mobile phone-based application called ‘HSIApps’ drawing on years of field experience and data collection in street dog location recording, as well as clinical and postoperative treatment. HSIApps facilitates the return of dogs back to their exact captured location, which ensures dog welfare, and generates reports of a variety of useful data variables to maximise the efficacy and reliability of sterilisation programmes.

Seasonal Patterns of Oestrus and Reproduction in Street Dogs of Indian Cities

Understanding seasonal breeding dynamics is essential for maximizing efficiency and welfare in the application of street dog management programs. Humane Society International (HSI) has conducted many animal birth control programmes concerning the street dog populations in urban India. This paper analyses the data on reproductive indicators-oestrus, pregnancy, and pups-collected by HSI sterilization clinics in the cities of Jamshedpur, Dehradun, and Vadodara over a period of 3, 5, and 4 years, respectively. We found a consistent reproductive seasonality dynamic in all three cities, with peak oestrus and pregnancies occurring in the late/post-monsoon season. Pup proportions peaked soon after. Both these findings are consistent with previous studies of free-roaming domestic dog populations both in India and worldwide. Additionally, we identified minor inter-city differences in the temporal breeding dynamic, which we propose are the result of localized seasonal climatic and human factors. Finally, we examine and assert the relevance of breeding seasonality in the implementation of efficient and welfare-sensitive birth control programmes.

The Implications of Policies on the Welfare of Free-Roaming Cats in New Zealand

A lack of national legislation for cat management in New Zealand poses challenges for ensuring that practices are consistently humane and effective. In this paper, we review the current cat management policies in New Zealand and the implications they have on the welfare of free-roaming cats (from here on, referred to as 'cats'). Our review demonstrates that there are multiple policy mechanisms used to manage cats in New Zealand for a variety of reasons, including animal welfare, pest management, and nuisance, and that these different policies have both positive and negative implications for cat welfare. We provide context pertaining to New Zealanders' acceptance of current or future laws and regulations and compare the New Zealand policy landscape with other countries, with a particular emphasis on Australia, to identify potential directions and outcomes of increased regulation. We discuss the future of the regulatory environment in New Zealand, including the need to better understand the impact of policies on cats, people, and other animals in urban, rural, and wild spaces. We further discuss the need to better understand the cat-human relationship for future policy decisions and offer a solution based on national cat legislation.

Sonographic Assessment of the Normal and Abnormal Feline Mammary Glands and Axillary and Inguinal Lymph Nodes

Ultrasound has been used as a diagnostic tool in normal mammary glands and mammary tumors of several species. This study aims to describe the B-mode and Doppler ultrasound features of the mammary glands and draining lymph nodes in 32 adult female cats. Group 1 (G1) consisted of 22 cats without changes in the mammary glands. The average age was 45 ± 25.09 months, where 63.6% (n = 14) were neutered and 31.8% (n = 7) had received progestin at some point for reproductive control. Mammary gland structure was predominantly hypoechoic and homogeneous, with well-defined margins. The average thickness was 1.52 ± 1.59 mm, although it may be affected by estrus, pregnancy, and lactation. In G1, 100% of lymph nodes were homogeneous, 98% were hypoechoic, and 100% were with well-defined margins and hilar vascularization. Group 2 (G2) consisted of 10 cats with mammary nodules. The average age was 88.8 ± 40.5 months, and 70% were intact and all had already received progestin. Ultrasound demonstrated enlarged mammary glands, with nodules of different textures clinically, mainly affecting the abdominal mammary glands (61%). In 33.33%, there were visible mammary ducts. Only 54.17% were homogeneous, 95.83% were hypoechoic, and the margins were regular in 52.08%. Lymph nodes in abnormal mammary chains may present changes in size, shape, echotexture, and echogenicity. Ultrasound examination of the mammary glands and lymph nodes are possible to evaluate the entire mammary chain as well the superficial inguinal and axillary lymph nodes for abnormalities in the feline.

A Mapping Study of Veterinary Literature on Perceptions and Attitudes of Female Canine Spaying

This is a mapping study conducted to evaluate the characteristics of where content that engages in perspectives or attitudes on female dog spaying is published. Three databases, CAB Direct, PubMed, and Scopus, were systematically searched. There were 84 out of 642 papers identified and screened for relevance on attitudes or perceptions on female canine spaying. These 84 articles were then examined for recurring authors, institutional representation, and publisher information. Additionally, information regarding the population being addressed, veterinarian or client, was noted with most literature addressing the veterinary perspective. Many important articles were published in a wide array of journals from many countries, which suggests the importance of not only browsing journals but also searching for relevant literature in databases like CAB Abstracts and MEDLINE.

The Cat Desexing Policies and Activities of Private Veterinary Practices in Queensland

Cats are prolific breeders, and if most cats were desexed prior to puberty, numbers of unwanted cats and kittens, and hence numbers entering shelters, would be expected to decline. Although traditionally in Australia it has been reported that 90% of veterinary clients' cats are desexed, there are still hundreds of cats and kittens that end up unwanted and in shelter care annually. In this study, we surveyed Queensland veterinary practices to describe ages that veterinarians are recommending cats should be desexed at, ages at which desexing actually occurs, what veterinary practices are doing to promote desexing of cats, and what veterinarians see as the barriers to desexing of cats before puberty. A questionnaire was developed and sent to all veterinary practices in Queensland. The response rate was 50%. Almost 45% of respondents recommended desexing at the traditional age of 6 months, which is later than puberty in most cats; for more than 56% of practices, the actual average age at which desexing occurred was at least 6 months; and in a substantial proportion of practices, when desexed, high percentages of cats had already had litters. Most practices took steps to encourage their clients to have their cats desexed, and most thought these steps were effective. The results from this study suggest that although veterinarians generally agree that cats should be desexed prior to having their first litter, recommended and actual desexing ages are commonly too late to ensure this is achieved. Better understanding is required about both the likely impact of more veterinary practices recommending and conducting desexing before puberty on numbers of unwanted cats and numbers surrendered to shelters, and the drivers of age at which cats are desexed. This could inform strategies to reduce numbers of unwanted cats.

Demographics, distribution, ownership and naming patterns of pets presented to a mobile clinic for sterilisation in Namibia

This study analysed the demographics, spatial distribution, ownership and naming patterns of dogs and cats presented to the University of Namibia’s veterinary mobile clinic for sterilisation from small underserved towns around Namibia. The proportional distribution of pets was determined based on species, sex, age, owner gender, town of origin and naming categories. Overall, 84.4% (n = 2909) of the animals presented for sterilisation were dogs and the remainder were cats (15.6%, n = 539). Of the dogs presented for sterilisation, 51.9% (n = 1509) were male and 48.1% (n = 1400) were female. In cats, 51.4% (n = 277) were male, whilst 48.6% (n = 262) were female. Overall, the majority of pets (68.2%) were presented for sterilisation from urban areas than rural areas (31.8%). About 49.8% of men and 24.2% of women that presented pets for sterilisation came from urban areas, whilst 20.1% of the women and 11.7% of the men that presented pets for sterilisation were from rural areas. Of all the pets presented for sterilisation, the majority were male-owned (64%, n = 2206). Pets were mainly presented for sterilisation at < 2 years (41.1%), 2 to < 4 years (32.4%) and 4 to < 6 years (15.4%). The naming of pets was mainly after people (42.4%), circumstances (20.6%) and appearance (15.5%). This community engagement exercise yielded valuable demographic data indicating that pet origin, sex and species and owner gender were important factors in determining the voluntary presentation of pets for sterilisation in the study area.

Prostatic Neoplasia in the Intact and Castrated Dog: How Dangerous is Castration?

Elective gonadectomy in the dog is a topic of interest for clinicians, pet-owners, and society. Although canine prostatic neoplasia (CPN) has a low incidence (0.35%), reports of an increased risk for castrated dogs attract attention and cause concern in pet-owners. Our aim is to provide professionals and non-professionals with a detailed description of this possible side effect of gonadectomy in the dog. The mean age at diagnosis of CPN ranges from 8.5 to 11.2 years. Medium to large size breeds are more frequently affected. Symptoms and findings of non-invasive examinations are not pathognomonic, therefore, cytological or histological examinations are needed for diagnosis. Overall, the incidence of metastasis reaches up to 80%, yet lung metastasis reportedly has no negative impact on median survival time (MST). It has been reported that castrated males have a significantly higher MST than intact males. Differences in inclusion criteria for studied populations make a comparison of studies difficult. Citation of odds ratios without consideration of the context of the reference may result in premature conclusions. We conclude that elective gonadectomy of adult male dogs under six years of age cannot be excluded from the veterinary practice due to concern of causing CPN until clear and strong evidence is available.

Neutering Effects on Social Behaviour of Urban Unowned Free-Roaming Domestic Cats

The "trap, spay/neuter, and release" programs to manage unowned free-roaming cat populations are diffused worldwide and they are largely advised even in countries where the suppression of unowned cats is enforced by law. Despite the massive neutering campaigns in the world, there is little information on the influence of neutering on individual cat behaviour, as well as on the social structure of cat colonies. The aim of this study is to verify such effects. Before neutering, the group consisted of 17 free-roaming domestic cats, who were totally unrestrained. After neutering it consisted of 16 individuals. Data on the outcomes of aggressive, submissive, affiliative, and territorial behaviour were collected, using classic ethological methods ("focal animal", "all occurrences", and "1/0" sampling methods) (735 h of observation before and 537 h after neutering). The dominance hierarchy did not change after neutering. On the other hand, the frequency of aggressive, territorial behaviour as well as proximity among individuals decreased significantly. Affiliative behaviour has been observed among neutered adult males that never performed it before neutering. The results of this study suggest that, after neutering: (i) The group of free-ranging cats was stable over time; (ii) the hierarchical structure of the cat social group did not change; (iii) the general level of activity, decreased; (iv) urine spraying marking behaviour almost disappeared; (v) the level of social proximity among group members decreased, although it tended to increase in some male-male dyads. The most obvious effect of neutering, detected on individual behaviour, was that cats were less active.

Behavioural risks in female dogs with minimal lifetime exposure to gonadal hormones

Spaying of female dogs is a widespread practice, performed primarily for population control. While the consequences of early spaying for health are still being debated, the consequences for behaviour are believed to be negligible. The current study focused on the reported behaviour of 8981 female dogs spayed before 520 weeks (ten years) of life for reasons other than behavioural management, and calculated their percentage lifetime exposure to gonadal hormones (PLGH) as a proportion of their age at the time of being reported to the online Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). We found that 23 behaviours differed between entire and spayed dogs, of which 12 were associated with PLGH and 5 with age-at-spay (AAS). Two behaviours, chewing and howling, were significantly more likely in dogs with longer PLGH. In contrast, longer PLGH was associated with significantly reduced reporting of 10 (mostly unwelcome) behaviours. Of these, one related to fearfulness and three to aggression. The current data suggest that dogs' tendency to show numerous behaviours can be influenced by the timing of spaying. They indicate how female dog behaviour matures when gonadal hormones are allowed to have their effect. The differences reported here between undesirable behaviours of spayed and entire dogs were in the range of 5.33% and 7.22%, suggesting that, for some dogs, partial or complete denial of maturation may reduce howling and chewing and improve retrieval and recall, but have other undesirable consequences. Veterinarians may take these data into account to discuss the risks and benefits of spaying with clients, and the timing of the procedure.

Desexing Dogs: A Review of the Current Literature

Background: Desexing dogs is promoted for population control, preventative healthcare, and behavior modification. Common methods are orchiectomy and ovariectomy/ovariohysterectomy. GnRH superagonist implants are available in some areas. Alternative methods like vasectomy and salpingectomy/hysterectomy are uncommon. The terminology used to describe desexing is inconsistent and contradictory, showing a need for the adaption of standardized terminology. Population Control: Surprisingly, empirical studies show no effects of desexing on population control in companion and shelter dogs despite desexing being consistently recommended in the literature. There is evidence for a population control effect in free-roaming dogs, where desexing also has benefits on zoonotic disease and bite risk. Population control in free-roaming dogs is mostly correlated with female, not male desexing. Health and Lifespan: Desexing affects numerous disease risks, but studies commonly neglect age at diagnosis and overall lifespan, age being by far the most important risk factor for most diseases. We argue that lifespan is a more important outcome than ultimate cause of death. A beneficial effect of desexing on lifespan is consistently demonstrated in females, while evidence for a beneficial effect in males is inconsistent. Studies are likely biased in desexing being a proxy for better care and desexed dogs having already lived to the age of desexing. Desexing reduces or eliminates common life-limiting diseases of the female reproductive system such as pyometra and mammary tumors, while no analogous effect exists in males. Disease risks increases across sexes and breeds include cruciate ligament rupture, various cancers, and obesity. Urinary incontinence risk is increased in females only. Various other disease risk changes show considerable variability between breeds and sexes. Behavioral Effects: Desexed males show reduced libido, roaming, conspecific mounting, and urinary marking frequency, as well as reduced male dog-directed aggression in a majority of males desexed for behavioral reasons. There is a detrimental effect on the risk and progression of age-related cognitive dysfunction. Desexed dogs may be less likely to cause bite injuries across sexes. The evidence for other effects such as human-directed aggression, human or object mounting, resource guarding, or shyness and anxiety is inconsistent and contradictory. There are few studies specific to females or individual breeds. Conclusions: The evidence for a beneficial effect of desexing is stronger in female than in male dogs; however, there is significant variation between breeds and sexes, and more research is needed to further elucidate these differences and to arrive at individualized evidence-based recommendations for clinical practice.

A Review of the Impact of Neuter Status on Expression of Inherited Conditions in Dogs

Gonadectomy is an important reproductive management tool employed in many countries, and is highly prevalent in the US with an estimated 85% of dogs being neutered. Despite the societal benefits in pet population control, negative associations between neuter status, and health conditions have been reported in recent years. Most particularly observed are the consequences of early age neutering. Knowing that different physiological systems rely upon gonadal steroids during development and physiological maintenance, studies have been undertaken to assess the impact of neuter status on multiple body and organ systems. For some inherited conditions, neutering is associated with an increased risk of expression. Neutering has also been associated with altered metabolism and a predisposition for weight gain in dogs, which may confound the detected risk association between neutering and disease expression. This review summarizes the effects of neutering on cancer, orthopedic, and immune disorders in the dog and also explores the potentially exacerbating factor of body weight.

The Views of the UK Public Towards Routine Neutering of Dogs and Cats

Despite being routinely recommended by veterinarians, neutering of dogs and cats has both positive and negative impacts on animal welfare and is ethically problematic. We examined attitudes of a sample of the UK public towards routine neutering of dogs and cats using a questionnaire. Respondents indicated their level of agreement with statements describing welfare and ethical reasons 'for' and 'against' the neutering of male and female dogs and cats. We conducted a general linear model (GLM) analysis to investigate the effects of demographic factors on agreement scores. Respondents (n = 451) expressed views both supporting and opposing neutering. The predominant view (>80%) supported neutering, justified primarily by prevention of unwanted offspring and reproductive diseases. Around 10% of the respondents disagreed and felt that neutering should only be done for medical reasons. Men were less likely than women to support neutering (p < 0.001). Those with meat reduction diets were more likely to be against neutering (p < 0.05) and cat owners supported neutering more than non-cat owners (p < 0.05). Although the data reflected a wide range of ethical views, our findings show that the UK public generally supports the routine neutering of dogs and cats. This insight has implications for future policy-making and compliance with veterinary advice.