6-Aminoflavone Activates Nrf2 to Inhibit the Phospho-JNK/TNF-α Signaling Pathway to Reduce Amyloid Burden in an Aging Mouse Model

In the current study, we examined the antioxidant activity and anti-amyloidogenic potential of 6-aminoflavone in an adult mice model of d-galactose-induced aging. Male albino eight-week-old mice were assigned into four groups: 1. the control group (saline-treated), 2. d-galactose-treated mice (100 mg/kg/day, intravenously) for eight weeks, 3. d-galactose-treated mice (100 mg/kg/day, intravenously for eight weeks) and 6-AF-treated mice (30 mg/kg/day, intravenously for the final four weeks), and 4. 6-AF-treated mice (30 mg/kg/day i.p. for four weeks). We conducted many assays for antioxidant enzymes, including lipid peroxidation, catalase, glutathione (GSH), peroxidase (POD), and sulfoxide dismutase (SOD) (LPO). Western blotting was used to assess protein expression while the Morris water maze (MWM) and Y-maze (YM) were used to study behavior. The findings show that 6-AF greatly improved neuronal synapse and memory impairment brought on by d-galactose and it significantly inhibited BACE1 to reduce the amyloidogenic pathway of A (both amyloid β production and aggregation) by upregulating Nrf2 proteins (validated through molecular docking studies) and suppressing phosphorylated JNK and TNF-α proteins in adult albino mice's brain homogenates. These findings suggest that 6-AF, through the Nrf2/p-JNK/TNF-α signaling pathway, can diminish the oxidative stress caused by d-galactose, as well as the amyloidogenic route of A formation and memory impairment.

Novel EAAT2 activators improve motor and cognitive impairment in a transgenic model of Huntington's disease

Introduction

Glutamate excitotoxicity is causal in striatal neurodegeneration underlying motor dysfunction and cognitive deficits in Huntington's disease (HD). Excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), the predominant glutamate transporter accounting for >90% of glutamate transport, plays a key role in preventing excitotoxicity by clearing excess glutamate from the intrasynaptic cleft. Accordingly, EAAT2 has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for prevention of neuronal excitotoxicity underlying HD and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Methods

We have previously designed novel EAAT2 positive allosteric modulator GT951, GTS467, and GTS551, with low nanomolar efficacy in glutamate uptake and favorable pharmacokinetic properties. In this study, we test the neuroprotective abilities of these novel EAAT2 activators in vivo using the robust Drosophila HD transgenic model expressing human huntingtin gene with expanded repeats (Htt128Q).

Results

All three compounds significantly restored motor function impaired under HD pathology over a wide dose range. Additionally, treatment with all three compounds significantly improved HD-associated olfactory associative learning and short-term memory defects, while GT951 and GTS551 also improved middle-term memory in low-performing group. Similarly, treatment with GT951 and GTS551 partially protected against early mortality observed in our HD model. Further, treatment with all three EAAT2 activators induced epigenetic expression of EAAT2 Drosophila homolog and several cognition-associated genes.

Conclusion

Together, these results highlight the efficacy of GT951, GTS467 and GTS551 in treating motor and cognitive impairments under HD pathology and support their development for treatment of HD.

MicroRNAs in Huntington's Disease: Diagnostic Biomarkers or Therapeutic Agents?

MicroRNA (miRNA) is a non-coding single-stranded small molecule of approximately 21 nucleotides. It degrades or inhibits the translation of RNA by targeting the 3′-UTR. The miRNA plays an important role in the growth, development, differentiation, and functional execution of the nervous system. Dysregulated miRNA expression has been associated with several pathological processes of neurodegenerative disorders, including Huntington’s disease (HD). Recent studies have suggested promising roles of miRNAs as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for HD. Here, we review the emerging role of dysregulated miRNAs in HD and describe general biology of miRNAs, their pathophysiological implications, and their potential roles as biomarkers and therapeutic agents.

Effects of a Novel Psychomotor Stabilizer, IRL790, on Biochemical Measures of Synaptic Markers and Neurotransmission

The novel small-molecule psychomotor stabilizer, IRL790, is currently in clinical trial for treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesia and psychosis in patients with Parkinson disease. Here, we used naïve mice to investigate the effects of acute systemic administration of IRL790 on protein levels and phosphorylation states of proteins relevant for synaptic plasticity and transmission. IRL790 increased pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein levels and phosphorylation at Ser1303 of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype 2B glutamate receptor (NR2B) in prefrontal cortex. IRL790 also increased the phosphorylation states at Ser19, Ser31, and Ser40, respectively, of tyrosine hydroxylase in striatum. IRL790 reduced protein levels of the NR2B receptor in striatum but not in prefrontal cortex. Taken together, we report that systemically administered IRL790 rapidly elicits changes in protein level and phosphorylation state of proteins associated with a beneficial effect on synaptic markers and neurotransmission. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The novel small-molecule psychomotor stabilizer, IRL790, is currently in clinical trial for treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesia and psychosis in patients with Parkinson disease. In this study, we report that systemically administered IRL790 rapidly elicits changes in protein level and phosphorylation state of proteins associated with a beneficial effect on synaptic markers and neurotransmission.

Perceptions of the impact of chorea on health-related quality of life in Huntington disease (HD): A qualitative analysis of individuals across the HD spectrum, family members, and clinicians

Chorea, a hallmark symptom of Huntington's disease (HD), is characterized by jerky involuntary movements affecting the whole body that can interfere with daily functioning and impact health-related quality of life (HRQOL). To characterize chorea's impact on everyday functioning and HRQOL and identify patterns of perception and experiences of chorea among patients, caregivers, and providers. Data from focus groups of individuals with manifest HD (n = 8 early-stage HD; n = 16 late-stage HD), individuals at-risk or prodromal HD (n = 16), family HD caregivers (n = 17), and HD clinicians (n = 25). Focus group recordings were transcribed verbatim and analysed via constant comparison to identify meaningful and salient themes of living with chorea. Global themes of chorea's impact identified included: watching for chorea, experiences of stigma, and constraints on independence and relationships. Themes distinct to specific respondent groups included: Vigilance (at risk, prodromal); adaptation to chorea (early-stage); loss of autonomy and social life (late-stage); monitoring engagement (family caregivers) and safety (clinical providers). Living with chorea significantly constrains daily functioning, interactions, and HRQOL across the HD disease spectrum. Addressing these impacts via appropriate management of chorea can potentially enhance functioning, HRQOL, and overall satisfaction for persons with HD and their families.

Treatment options for chorea

INTRODUCTION

Chorea is defined as jerk-like movements that move randomly from one body part to another. It is due to a variety of disorders and although current symptomatic therapy is quite effective there are few etiology- or pathogenesis-targeted therapies. The aim of this review is to summarize our own experience and published evidence in the treatment of chorea. Areas covered: After evaluating current guidelines and clinical practices for chorea of all etiologies, PubMed was searched for the most recent clinical trials and reviews using the term 'chorea' cross referenced with specific drug names. Expert commentary: Inhibitors of presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 (VMAT2) that cause striatal dopamine depletion, such as tetrabenazine, deutetrabenazine, and valbenazine, are considered the treatment of choice in patients with chorea. Some clinicians also use dopamine receptor blockers (e.g. antipsychotics) and other drugs, including anti-epileptics and anti-glutamatargics. 'Dopamine stabilizers' such as pridopidine and other experimental drugs are currently being investigated in the treatment of chorea. Deep brain stimulation is usually reserved for patients with disabling chorea despite optimal medical therapy.

Medical management of motor manifestations of Huntington disease

The motor and movement disorders of Huntington disease (HD) are managed in the context of the other disease features. Chorea and dystonia are the most common HD-associated movement disorders, and they can be assessed on research rating scales. However other motor manifestations have a significant impact. In particular, dysphagia influences choice and tolerance of treatment for the movement disorder, as will comorbidities, patient awareness, and distress related to the motor feature or movement. Treatment for other disease features may aggravate the motor disorder, e.g., increased swallowing difficulty associated with antipsychotic agents. Basic principles in deciding to institute a treatment are outlined as well as treatment of specific motor manifestations and movements. There is a paucity of evidence to support the treatments available for the motor disorder, with only one agent with class 1 evidence, tetrabenazine, for chorea. There are, however, treatments informed by expert opinion which reflect the management of a wider HD phenotype than that represented in clinical trials. Some treatments are based on evidence from use in other conditions. Medical management is usually undertaken later in the disease with concurrent nonmedical interventions after multidisciplinary assessments. Medication review with HD progression is essential.

MicroRNA-27a reduces mutant hutingtin aggregation in an in vitro model of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal genetic disease caused by abnormal aggregation of mutant huntingtin protein (mHtt). Reduction of mHtt aggregation decreases cell death of the brain and is a promising therapeutic strategy of HD. MicroRNAs are short non-coding nucleotides which modulate various genes and dysregulated in many diseases including HD. MicroRNA miR-27a was reported to be reduced in the brain of R6/2 HD mouse model and modulate multidrug resistance protein-1 (MDR-1). Using subventricular zone-derived neuronal stem cells (NSCs), we used in vitro HD model to test the effect of miR-27a on MDR-1 and mHtt aggregation. R6/2-derived NSCs can be differentiated under condition of growth factor deprivation, and the progression of differentiation leads to a decrease of MDR-1 level and efflux function of cells. Immunocytochemistry result also confirmed that mHtt aggregation was increased with differentiation. We transfected miR-27a in the R6/2-derived differentiated NSCs, and examined phenotype of HD, mHtt aggregation. As a result, miR-27a transfection resulted in reduction of mHtt aggregation in HD cells. In addition, MDR-1, which can transport mHtt, protein level was increased by miR-27a transfection. Conversely, knock-down of MDR-1 through MDR-1 siRNA increased mHtt aggregation in vitro. Our results indicate that miR-27a could reduce mHtt level of the HD cell by augmenting MDR-1 function.

Current Pharmacological Approaches to Reduce Chorea in Huntington's Disease

There are currently no effective pharmacological agents available to stop or prevent the progression of Huntington's disease (HD), a rare hereditary neurodegenerative disorder. In addition to psychiatric symptoms and cognitive impairments, HD causes progressive motor disturbances, in particular choreiform movements, which are characterized by unwanted contractions of the facial muscles, trunk and extremities. Management of choreiform movements is usually advised if chorea interferes with daily functioning, causes social isolation, gait instability, falls, or physical injury. Although drugs to reduce chorea are available, only few randomized controlled studies have assessed the efficacy of these drugs, resulting in a high variety of prescribed drugs in clinical practice. The current pharmacological treatment options to reduce chorea in HD are outlined in this review, including the latest results on deutetrabenazine, a newly developed pharmacological agent similar to tetrabenazine, but with suggested less peak dose side effects. A review of the existing literature was conducted using the PubMed, Cochrane and Medline databases. In conclusion, mainly tetrabenazine, tiapride (in European countries), olanzapine, and risperidone are the preferred first choice drugs to reduce chorea among HD experts. In the existing literature, these drugs also show a beneficial effect on motor symptom severity and improvement of psychiatric symptoms. Generally, it is recommended to start with a low dose and increase the dose with close monitoring of any adverse effects. New interesting agents, such as deutetrabenazine and pridopidine, are currently under development and more randomized controlled trials are warranted to assess the efficacy on chorea severity in HD.

MicroRNAs in Neurocognitive Dysfunctions: New Molecular Targets for Pharmacological Treatments?

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative and cognitive disorders are multifactorial diseases (i.e., involving neurodevelopmental, genetic, age or environmental factors) characterized by an abnormal development that affects neuronal function and integrity. Recently, an increasing number of studies revealed that the dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) may be involved in the etiology of cognitive disorders as Alzheimer, Parkinson, and Huntington's diseases, Schizophrenia and Autism spectrum disorders.

METHODS

From an extensive search in bibliographic databases of peer-reviewed research literature, we identified relevant published studies related to specific key words such as memory, cognition, neurodegenerative disorders, neurogenesis and miRNA. We then analysed, evaluated and summerized scientific evidences derived from these studies.

RESULTS

We first briefly summarize the basic molecular events involved in memory, a process inherent to cognitive disease, and then describe the role of miRNAs in neurodevelopment, synaptic plasticity and memory. Secondly, we provide an overview of the impact of miRNA dysregulation in the pathogenesis of different neurocognitive disorders, and lastly discuss the feasibility of miRNA-based therapeutics in the treatment of these disorders.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights the molecular basis of neurodegenerative and cognitive disorders by focusing on the impact of miRNAs dysregulation in these pathological phenotypes. Altogether, the published reports suggest that miRNAs-based therapy could be a viable therapeutic alternative to current treatment options in the future.

Advances in management of movement disorders in children

Movement disorders in children are causally and clinically heterogeneous and present in a challenging developmental context. Treatment options are broad ranging, from pharmacotherapy to invasive neuromodulation and experimental gene and stem cell therapies. The clinical effects of these therapies are variable and often poorly sustained, and only a few of the management strategies used in paediatric populations have been tested in randomised controlled studies with age-appropriate cohorts. Identification of the most appropriate treatment is uniquely challenging in children because of the incomplete knowledge about the pathophysiology of movement disorders and their influence on normal motor development; thus, effective therapeutic options for these children remain an unmet need. It is vital to transfer the expanding knowledge of the movement disorders into the development of novel symptomatic or, ideally, disease-modifying treatments, and to assess these therapeutic strategies in appropriately designed and well done trials.

Pizotifen Activates ERK and Provides Neuroprotection in vitro and in vivo in Models of Huntington's Disease

BACKGROUND

Huntington's disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited neurodegenerative condition characterized by dysfunction in striatal and cortical neurons. There are currently no approved drugs known to slow the progression of HD.

OBJECTIVE

To facilitate the development of therapies for HD, we identified approved drugs that can ameliorate mutant huntingtin-induced toxicity in experimental models of HD.

METHODS

A chemical screen was performed in a mouse Hdh(Q111/Q111) striatal cell model of HD. This screen identified a set of structurally related approved drugs (pizotifen, cyproheptadine, and loxapine) that rescued cell death in this model. Pizotifen was subsequently evaluated in the R6/2 HD mouse model.

RESULTS

We found that in striatal Hdh(Q111/Q111) cells, pizotifen treatment caused transient ERK activation and inhibition of ERK activation prevented rescue of cell death in this model. In the R6/2 HD mouse model, treatment with pizotifen activated ERK in the striatum, reduced neurodegeneration and significantly enhanced motor performance.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that pizotifen and related approved drugs may provide a basis for developing disease modifying therapeutic interventions for HD.

Synthesis of (±)-Tetrabenazine by Visible Light Photoredox Catalysis

(±)-Tetrabenazine was synthesized in six steps from commercially available compounds. The key cyclization substrate was assembled rapidly via Baylis-Hillman and aza-Michael reactions. Annulation of the final ring was achieved through visible light photocatalysis, wherein carbon-carbon bond formation was driven by the oxidation of a tertiary amine. Solvent played a critical role in the photoredox cyclization outcome, whereas methanol led to a mixed ketal, acetonitrile/water (10:1) gave direct cyclization to (±)-tetrabenazine and occurred more rapidly.

Regulation of the Dopamine and Vesicular Monoamine Transporters: Pharmacological Targets and Implications for Disease

Dopamine (DA) plays a well recognized role in a variety of physiologic functions such as movement, cognition, mood, and reward. Consequently, many human disorders are due, in part, to dysfunctional dopaminergic systems, including Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and substance abuse. Drugs that modify the DA system are clinically effective in treating symptoms of these diseases or are involved in their manifestation, implicating DA in their etiology. DA signaling and distribution are primarily modulated by the DA transporter (DAT) and by vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT)-2, which transport DA into presynaptic terminals and synaptic vesicles, respectively. These transporters are regulated by complex processes such as phosphorylation, protein-protein interactions, and changes in intracellular localization. This review provides an overview of 1) the current understanding of DAT and VMAT2 neurobiology, including discussion of studies ranging from those conducted in vitro to those involving human subjects; 2) the role of these transporters in disease and how these transporters are affected by disease; and 3) and how selected drugs alter the function and expression of these transporters. Understanding the regulatory processes and the pathologic consequences of DAT and VMAT2 dysfunction underlies the evolution of therapeutic development for the treatment of DA-related disorders.

Transgenic Rat Models of Huntington's Disease

Several animal models for Huntington's disease (HD) have been created in order to investigate mechanisms of disease, and to evaluate the potency of novel therapies. Here, we describe the characteristics of the two transgenic rat models: transgenic rat model of HD (fragment model) and the Bacterial Artificial Chromosome HD model (full-length model). We discuss their genetic, behavioural, neuropathological and neurophysiological features.

Current therapeutic options for Huntington's disease: good clinical practice versus evidence-based approaches?

Therapeutic decision-making in Huntington's disease (HD) is often guided by clinical experience, because of the limited empirical evidence available. The only medication for HD that has met the regulatory hurdle for approval is tetrabenazine, indicated for the treatment of chorea. However, its use has limitations, and in the setting of specific contraindications or comorbidities the treatment of choice for chorea is still the multipurpose antipsychotics. For the management of psychiatric disturbances, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and mood stabilizers are often used, although empirical evidence is lacking. Finally, no known effective treatment is available for cognitive dysfunction in HD. We discuss the limited evidence available and current expert opinion on medical treatment of the dominant motor, psychiatric, and cognitive features of HD. This follows a brief introduction on the general principles of HD management and on evidence-based medicine in relation to clinical practice.

Treatment of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited progressive neurological disease characterized by chorea, an involuntary brief movement that tends to flow between body regions. HD is typically diagnosed based on clinical findings in the setting of a family history and may be confirmed with genetic testing. Predictive testing is available to family members at risk, but only experienced clinicians should perform the counseling and testing. Multiple areas of the brain degenerate, mainly involving the neurotransmitters dopamine, glutamate, and γ-aminobutyric acid. Although pharmacotherapies theoretically target these neurotransmitters, few well-conducted trials for symptomatic interventions have yielded positive results and current treatments have focused on the motor aspects of HD. Tetrabenazine is a dopamine-depleting agent that may be one of the more effective agents for reducing chorea, although it has a risk of potentially serious adverse effects. Some newer neuroleptic agents, such as olanzapine and aripiprazole, may have adequate efficacy with a more favorable adverse effect profile than older neuroleptic agents for treating chorea and psychosis. There are no current treatments to change the course of HD, but education and symptomatic therapies can be effective tools for clinicians to use with patients and families affected by HD.

Characteristics, pathophysiology and clinical management of weight loss in Huntington’s disease

SUMMARY Huntington’s disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the HTT gene. Clinically, the disease is characterized by motor impairment, cognitive deterioration and behavioral disturbances. Unintended weight loss is also a hallmark of the disease and frequently leads to general weakening and a decline in the quality of life of HD patients. Moreover, a higher BMI has been associated with a slower rate of disease progression. In this review, the authors first delineate the characteristics of weight loss in both HD patients and genetic models of the disease. Subsequently, they discuss the pathophysiological processes underlying weight loss in HD and highlight the implications for management and care of HD patients with, or at risk of, unintended weight loss.

Diffusion weighted imaging of prefrontal cortex in prodromal Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease with no effective disease-modifying treatments. There is considerable interest in finding reliable indicators of disease progression to judge the efficacy of novel treatments that slow or stop disease onset before debilitating signs appear. Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) may provide a reliable marker of disease progression by characterizing diffusivity changes in white matter (WM) in individuals with prodromal HD. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) may play a role in HD progression due to its prominent striatal connections and documented role in executive function. This study uses DWI to characterize diffusivity in specific regions of PFC WM defined by FreeSurfer in 53 prodromal HD participants and 34 controls. Prodromal HD individuals were separated into three CAG-Age Product (CAP) groups (16 low, 22 medium, 15 high) that indexed baseline progression. Statistically significant increases in mean diffusivity (MD) and radial diffusivity (RD) among CAP groups relative to controls were seen in inferior and lateral PFC regions. For MD and RD, differences among controls and HD participants tracked with baseline disease progression. The smallest difference was for the low group and the largest for the high group. Significant correlations between Trail Making Test B (TMTB) and mean fractional anisotropy (FA) and/or RD paralleled group differences in mean MD and/or RD in several right hemisphere regions. The gradient of effects that tracked with CAP group suggests DWI may provide markers of disease progression in future longitudinal studies as increasing diffusivity abnormalities in the lateral PFC of prodromal HD individuals.

Extracts of adipose derived stem cells slows progression in the R6/2 model of Huntington's disease

Stem cell therapy is a promising treatment for incurable disorders including Huntington's disease (HD). Adipose-derived stem cell (ASC) is an easily available source of stem cells. Since ASCs can be differentiated into nervous stem cells, it has clinically feasible potential for neurodegenerative disease. In addition, ASCs secrete various anti-apoptotic growth factors, which improve the symptoms of disease from transplanted ASCs. Thus, cell-free extracts of ASCs (ASCs-E) could be a potential candidate for treatment of HD. Here, we investigated effects of ASCs-E on R6/2 HD mouse model and neuronal cells. In R6/2 HD model, injection of ASCs-E improved the performance in Rotarod test. ASCs-E also ameliorated striatal atrophy and mutant huntingtin aggregation in the striatum. In Western blot increased expressions of p-Akt, p-CREB and PGC1α were noted by injection of ASCs-E, when comparing to the R6/2 HD model. Neuro2A neuroblastoma cells treated with ASCs-E showed increased expression of p-CREB and PGC1α. In conclusion, ASCs-E delayed disease progression in animal model of HD by restoring of CREB-PGC1α pathway and could be a potential resource for treatment of HD.

Localization and expression of VMAT2 aross mammalian species: a translational guide for its visualization and targeting in health and disease

VMAT2 is the vesicular monoamine transporter that allows DA, NE, Epi, His, and 5-HT uptake into neurons and endocrine cells. A second isoform, VMAT1, has similar structure and function, but does not recognize histamine as a substrate. VMAT1 is absent from neurons, and its major function appears to be in endocrine cells, that is, enterochromaffin cells, which scavenge 5-HT, but not histamine, from dietary sources. This chapter provides an update on the neuroanatomical distribution of VMAT2 across various mammalian species, including human, primate, pig, rat, and mouse. When necessary, VMAT1 expression is provided as a contrast. The main purpose of this chapter is to allow clinicians, in particular endocrinologists and diagnosing neuroradiologists and neuropathologists, an acquaintanceship with the possibilities for VMAT2 as a target for in vivo imaging, and drug development, based on this updated information.

Tetrabenazine: for chorea associated with Huntington's disease

Oral tetrabenazine is currently the only drug approved by the US FDA for the treatment of chorea associated with Huntington's disease (HD). Although the precise antichorea mechanism of action is unknown, it most likely involves reversible depletion of monoamines, particularly dopamine, from presynaptic terminals via inhibition of human vesicular monoamine transporter type 2. In a 12-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted in the US in patients with HD, oral tetrabenazine (≤100 mg/day; n = 54) was significantly (p = 0.0001) more efficacious than placebo (n = 30) at improving adjusted mean Unified HD Rating Scale (UHDRS) total maximum chorea scores (reduced from baseline by 5 vs 1.5) [primary endpoint]. After 12 weeks, improvements in UHDRS total maximum chorea scores of >3 were achieved by significantly (p < 0.0001) more patients in the tetrabenazine group than in the placebo group. The antichorea efficacy of tetrabenazine was maintained in an 80-week extension study (n = 75), with the adjusted mean UHDRS total maximum chorea score significantly (p < 0.001) reduced from baseline (score of 14.9) by 4.6 points (primary outcome). In the 12-week trial and 80-week extension study, treatment-emergent adverse events in the tetrabenazine group mainly occurred during the dosage-titration phase, a period during which the dosage was individually optimized. Most of these events were mild to moderate and were manageable with dosage adjustments or discontinuation of study drug.

Profiles of motor and cognitive impairment in the transgenic rat model of Huntington's disease

The transgenic Huntington's disease (tgHD) rat strain provides a well regarded transgenic animal model of Huntington's disease, offering the prospect for a more detailed functional analysis in rats, along with neurological and therapeutic interventions, than is possible in the more widely available mouse models. In the present experiments, we compare the performance of heterozygous and homozygous tgHD rats against wildtype littermates on a range of motor and cognitive assessments in five separate cohorts of rats between 8 and 22 months of age. Male but not female heterozygous tgHD rats exhibit modest motor deficits in rotarod and staircase reaching tests, whereas most cognitive tests (including object recognition, exploration of novelty, delayed alternation, choice reaction time, and serial implicit learning tasks) revealed at best small or inconsistent deficits, in homozygous as well as heterozygous animals, up to 22 months of age. Thus, although we have observed modest but clear-cut deficits in motor phenotype, with a sex difference in line with previous reports, we have not established a robust cognitive impairment in this strain on a range of tasks sensitive to frontostriatal function, as required for testing novel (symptomatic, protective or reparative) therapeutics in a robust, valid, animal model of human Huntington's disease.

The role of immunity in Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a devastating and incurable neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive cognitive, psychiatric and motor impairments. Although the disease has been seen as a disorder purely of the brain, there is now emerging evidence that abnormalities outside the central nervous system are commonly seen in HD. Indeed, the mutant huntingtin (mHtt) coded for by the abnormal gene in HD is found in every cell type where its presence has been sought. In particular, there are a number of recent observations in HD patients that mHtt interacts with the immune system with accumulating evidence that changes in the immune system may critically contribute to the pathology of HD. However, the nature of this contribution remains unclear, to the extent that it is not even known whether the immune system has a beneficial or detrimental role in HD patients. In this review, we attempt to bring a novel understanding to the interaction of the immune system to HD pathology, thereby shedding light on its potential pathogenic role. As part of this discussion, we revisit the clinical data on the anti-inflammatory drug trials in HD and propose new experimental approaches to interrogate the role of immunity in this currently incurable disorder.

Managing chorea in Huntington’s disease

SUMMARY Huntington’s disease (HD) is an inherited, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive motor dysfunction, abnormal involuntary movements, emotional disturbances and cognitive decline. There is currently no treatment to modify the progression of HD. Until disease modifying agents are established, symptomatic treatment remains the cornerstone of management. Treating chorea and other motor symptoms may improve the quality of life of sufferers. Multiple interventions have been studied for the treatment of chorea, but tetrabenazine is the only US FDA-approved drug indicated for the treatment of chorea associated with HD. In this article, medications available for the treatment of chorea will be summarized and investigational interventions for the management of chorea will also be briefly reviewed. Although chorea only constitutes part of HD, the movements can be disabling, injurious or bothersome.

The importance of integrating basic and clinical research toward the development of new therapies for Huntington disease

Huntington disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disorder that results from expansion of the polyglutamine repeat in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. There are currently no effective treatments for this devastating disease. Given its monogenic nature, disease modification therapies for HD should be theoretically feasible. Currently, pharmacological therapies aimed at disease modification by altering levels of HTT protein are in late-stage preclinical development. Here, we review current efforts to develop new treatments for HD based on our current understanding of HTT function and the main pathological mechanisms. We emphasize the need to enhance translational efforts and highlight the importance of aligning the clinical and basic research communities to validate existing hypotheses in clinical studies. Human and animal therapeutic trials are presented with an emphasis on cellular and molecular mechanisms relevant to disease progression.

Tetrabenazine: the first approved drug for the treatment of chorea in US patients with Huntington disease

Huntington disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited progressive neurological disease characterized by chorea, an involuntary brief movement that tends to flow between body regions. HD is typically diagnosed based on clinical findings in the setting of a family history and may be confirmed with genetic testing. Predictive testing is available to those at risk, but only experienced clinicians should perform the counseling and testing. Multiple areas of the brain degenerate mainly involving the neurotransmitters dopamine, glutamate, and γ-aminobutyric acid. Although pharmacotherapies theoretically target these neurotransmitters, few well-conducted trials for symptomatic or neuroprotective interventions yielded positive results. Tetrabenazine (TBZ) is a dopamine-depleting agent that may be one of the more effective agents for reducing chorea, although it has a risk of potentially serious adverse effects. Some newer antipsychotic agents, such as olanzapine and aripiprazole, may have adequate efficacy with a more favorable adverse-effect profile than older antipsychotic agents for treating chorea and psychosis. This review will address the epidemiology and diagnosis of HD as background for understanding potential pharmacological treatment options. Because TBZ is the only US Food and Drug Administration-approved medication in the United States for HD, the focus of this review will be on its pharmacology, efficacy, safety, and practical uses. There are no current treatments to change the course of HD, but education and symptomatic therapies can be effective tools for clinicians to use with patients and families affected by HD.