Unique Medicinal Properties of Withania somnifera: Phytochemical Constituents and Protein Component

Effects of Withania somnifera on Cortisol Levels in Stressed Human Subjects: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Withania somnifera (WS), a popular medicinal plant of the Solanaceae family, contains active ingredients with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anti-stress activities. However, its precise mechanisms of action and optimal use as a supplement are not yet fully understood. The objective of this systematic review is to assess the impact of WS supplementation on cortisol levels in stressed humans by analyzing clinical trials conducted prior to May 2023.

METHODS

The assessment was carried out following the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) by exploring the databases of EMBASE, PubMed, Google Scholar, CENTRAL, and Scopus.

RESULTS

Of the 4788 articles identified, only 9 studies met the selection criteria. The selected studies varied in terms of design, results, formulations, dosages, and treatment duration (30-112 days), and involved subjects with varying degrees of stress. WS supplementation decreases cortisol secretion with no significant adverse effects. Nonetheless, none of the studies evaluated the potential impact of cortisol reduction on adrenal function and long-term effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Brief-term supplementation with WS appears to have a stress-reducing effect in stressed individuals. However, since the long-term effects of WS supplementation are not yet fully understood, WS supplements should be used under medical supervision.

Effects of two Ayurvedic formulations, Dhanwantaram Kashaya and Saraswatarishta on life history parameters and toxic aggregates in Drosophila models of Huntington's and Alzheimer's disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ayurveda, the traditional healthcare system native to India, employs dosage forms containing multiple herbs in treating various clinical conditions. Dhanwantaram Kashaya (DK) and Saraswatarishta (SA) are two such formulations containing multiple herbs in varied proportions. Kashaya is a liquid decoction while Arishta is fermented liquid with permissible quantity of self-generated alcohol in it. Both the formulations have been reported to have clinical efficacy in age-related memory impairment. Other mental disorders having clinical presentations similar to psychoses are the other indications for these tested formulations.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was performed to evaluate the efficacy of two Rasayana formulations i.e., DK and SA, used by clinicians in different neurodegenerative conditions. We tested these formulations in Alzheimer's (AD) and Huntington's disease (HD) models of Drosophila melanogaster.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Initial experiments looking for life-history parameters in wild-type larvae were carried out in three sets with hundred larvae in each set. These parameters were also studied in diseased models in four sets with eighty larvae in each set. Aβ plaques and polyQ aggregates were looked at with the help of immunostaining technique and images were captured using confocal microscopy.

RESULTS

The results revealed that 0.25% concentration of both the formulations improve longevity in wild-type flies. Larval development and adult lifespan in Eye-GAL4>Aβ42 (AD) and GMR-GAL4>127Q (HD) larvae/flies reared on 0.25% & 0.50% DK and 0.25% & 1.00% SA improved substantially. Reduced Aβ plaques and polyQ aggregates indicate disease suppression.

CONCLUSION

DK and SA enhanced longevity in Drosophila melanogaster. Suppression of disease aggregates suggests their potential utility in treating AD and HD. Further clinical and pharmaceutical studies are required to confirm these results, however, this is a workable model to test multi-herbal formulations of Ayurveda in the forms they are clinically used.

Liver Dangers of Herbal Products: A Case Report of Ashwagandha-Induced Liver Injury

In recent years, cases of liver damage caused by ashwagandha herbal supplements have been reported from different parts of the world (Japan, Iceland, India, and the USA). Here, we describe the clinical phenotype of suspected ashwagandha-induced liver injury and the potential causative mechanism. The patient was admitted to the hospital because of jaundice. In the interview, it was reported that he had been taking ashwagandha for a year. Laboratory results showed an increase in total bilirubin, alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), (gamma-glutamyl transpherase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total cholesterol, triglycerides, and ferritin. Based on clinical symptoms and additional tests, the patient was diagnosed with acute hepatitis and referred to a facility with a higher reference rate to exclude drug-induced liver injury. An R-value was assessed, indicative of hepatocellular injury. The result of the 24 h urine collection exceeded the upper limit of normal for copper excretion in urine twice. The clinical condition improved after intensive pharmacological treatment and four plasmapheresis treatments. This case is another showing the hepatotoxic potential of ashwagandha to cause cholestatic liver damage mixed with severe jaundice. In view of several documented cases of liver damage caused by ashwagandha and the unknown metabolic molecular mechanisms of substances contained in it, attention should be paid to patients reporting the use of these products in the past and presenting symptoms of liver damage.

Augmented rescue of macroglobulins by supplementation of anti-snake venom with methanolic extract of Andrographis paniculata in Naja naja envenomation

Proteins of the macroglobulin family are prime targets of venom enzymes in snake bite. A massive reduction in the active concentration of these multifunctional proteins in snake bite, makes the living system vulnerable to dysregulation. This study investigates the ability of Indian polyvalent anti-snake venom (ASV), methanolic extract of Andrographis paniculata (MAP) and their combination in rescuing human alpha 2-macroglobulin (A2MG) and its homologues in rat plasma, from inactivation by Naja naja (N.N) venom enzymes. In-vitro experiments were conducted with heparinized human plasma and in-vivo experiments with female Wistar rats. Along with appropriate controls, there were 3 test groups in in-vitro and 8 test groups in in-vivo experiments. The in-vitro test groups were exposed to N.N venom for zero, 30 or 90 min prior to incubation with ASV or MAP or reduced ASV supplemented with MAP and incubated for 16 h at 37 °C. Chymotrypsin-bound esterase (CTBE) activity of A2MG was estimated. Rats were administered the venom intramuscularly and treated with ASV/MAP/ASV + MAP. CTBE activity of macroglobulin homologues was measured on day 1, 7 and 14. Survival of animals was noted. In human plasma, addition of ASV or MAP or ASV + MAP prevented loss of A2MG activity maximally to the extent of 88–100% (p = 0.001). In rats, reduced concentration of ASV supplemented with MAP showed complete rescue of macroglobulin homologues and 90% survival. The compulsive evidence from this study, underscores the merits of using this multipronged strategy in rescuing the macroglobulins and improving survival in envenomation due to N.N.

All-trans Retinoic Acid-incorporated Glycol Chitosan Nanoparticles Regulate Macrophage Polarization in Pg-LPS-Induced Inflammation

OBJECTIVE

The occurrence and development of inflammation are closely correlated to the polarization of macrophages. All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) has been proven to promote the polarization of macrophages from M1 to M2, but this lacks an effective carrier to participate in the biological response. The present study aims to determine whether retinoic acid-incorporated glycol chitosan (RA-GC) nanoparticles can regulate macrophage polarization in Porphyromonas gingivalis-lipopolysaccharide (Pg-LPS)-induced inflammation.

METHODS

Mouse 264.7 cell lines were treated with 1 µg/mL Pg-LPS to induce inflammation. After the effects of ATRA and RA-GC on the activity of macrophages were detected by CCK-8 assay, cells induced with Pg-LPS were assigned to the blank control group (GC) nanoparticles without ATRA, and experimental groups (GC nanoparticles loaded with different concentrations of ATRA: 1, 10 and 100 µg/mL). The effects of RA-GC on inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-12 in macrophages were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Subsequently, the effects of GC nanoparticles loaded with/without ATRA on macrophage polarization in an inflammatory environment were detected by RT-PCR and Western blotting.

RESULTS

The results revealed that RA-GC had no significant effect on macrophage activity. However, RA-GC could effectively inhibit the Pg-LPS-induced inflammatory factor expression in macrophages. Meanwhile, the experimental results confirmed that RA-GC could downregulate the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (a marker of M1 macrophages) and upregulate the expression of mannose receptor and Arginase-1 (a marker of M2 macrophages) in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

The present study confirms that RA-GC can promote the M2 polarization of macrophages in an inflammatory environment, and proposes this as a promising target for the clinical treatment of Pg-LPS-related diseases.

Computational assessment of Withania somnifera phytomolecules as putative inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis CTP synthase PyrG

Genome evolution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) produces new strains resistant to various pre-existing anti-tubercular drugs. Hence, there is an urgent need to explore potent compounds with the most negligible side effects and effective Mtb inhibition. Mtb PyrG (CTP synthase) is a crucial enzyme for the conversion of the uridine triphosphate (UTP) into cytidine triphosphate (CTP) and is essential for the growth of Mtb. Thus, in this study, phytochemicals of Withania somnifera (W. somnifera) were screened to find the potential inhibitors against Mtb PyrG. Molecular docking resulted in the identification of quercetin 3-rutinoside-7-glucoside, rutin, chlorogenic acid and isochlorogenic acid C with a substantial docking score (from -12.6 to -10.8 kcal/mol) contributed by significant intermolecular interactions. Furthermore, 100 ns molecular dynamics simulation, ADME analysis and free binding energy calculations support the stability of docked complexes and drug-likeness for selected compounds, respectively. Collectively, these findings suggest that phytochemicals present in W. somnifera can be considered for further evaluation against Mtb in a series of in vitro and in vivo models.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Withanolides from Withania somnifera Ameliorate Neutrophil Infiltration in Endotoxin-Induced Peritonitis by Regulating Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Cytokines

Identification of novel anti-inflammatory strategies are needed to avoid the side effects associated with the currently available therapies. Use of anti-inflammatory herbal remedies is gaining attention. The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate the pharmacological potential of the withanolide-rich root extracts of the medical plant Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal using in vivo and in vitro models of endotoxin-induced inflammation and oxidative stress. The pharmacological effects of W. somnifera root extracts were evaluated using a mouse model of endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide)-induced peritonitis and various relevant human cell lines. HPLC analysis of the W. somnifera root extracts identified the presence of various bioactive withanolides. In vivo challenge of mice with endotoxin resulted in the infiltration of various leukocytes, specifically neutrophils, along with monocytes and lymphocytes into the peritoneal cavity. Importantly, prophylactic treatment with W. somnifera inhibited the migration of neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes and decreased the release of interleukin-1β, TNF-α, and interleukin-6 cytokines into the peritoneal cavity as identified by ELISA. Liver (glutathione peroxidase, glutathione, glutathione disulfide, superoxide dismutase, malondialdehyde, myeloperoxidase) and peritoneal fluid (nitrite) biochemical analysis revealed the antioxidant profile of W. somnifera. Similarly, in human HepG2 cells, W. somnifera significantly modulated the antioxidant levels. In THP-1 cells, W. somnifera decreased the secretion of interleukin-6 and TNF-α. In HEK-Blue reporter cells, W. somnifera inhibited TNF-α-induced nuclear factor-κB/activator protein 1 transcriptional activity. Our findings suggest the pharmacological effects of root extracts of W. somnifera rich in withanolides inhibit neutrophil infiltration, oxidative hepatic damage, and cytokine secretion via modulating the nuclear factor-κB/activator protein 1 pathway.

N. M, Sonavane U, Joshi R. Natural plant products as potential inhibitors of RNA dependent RNA polymerase of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2

Drug repurposing studies targeting inhibition of RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have exhibited the potential effect of small molecules. In the present work a detailed interaction study between the phytochemicals from Indian medicinal plants and the RdRP of SARS-CoV-2 has been performed. The top four phytochemicals obtained through molecular docking were, swertiapuniside, cordifolide A, sitoindoside IX, and amarogentin belonging to Swertia chirayita, Tinospora cordifolia and Withania somnifera. These ligands bound to the RdRP were further studied using molecular dynamics simulations. The principal component analysis of these systems showed significant conformational changes in the finger and thumb subdomain of the RdRP. Hydrogen bonding, salt-bridge and water mediated interactions supported by MM-GBSA free energy of binding revealed strong binding of cordifolide A and sitoindoside IX to RdRP. The ligand-interacting residues belonged to either of the seven conserved motifs of the RdRP. These residues were polar and charged amino acids, namely, ARG 553, ARG 555, ASP 618, ASP 760, ASP 761, GLU 811, and SER 814. The glycosidic moieties of the phytochemicals were observed to form favourable interactions with these residues. Hence, these phytochemicals may hold the potential to act as RdRP inhibitors owing to their stability in binding to the druggable site.

Metabolomics of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal: Advances and applications

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withania somnifera L. (Solanaceae), commonly known as Ashwagandha or Indian ginseng, is used in Ayurveda (Indian system of traditional medicine) for vitality, cardio-protection and treating other ailments, such as neurological disorders, gout, and skin diseases.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

We present a critical overview of the information on the metabolomics of W. somnifera and highlight the significance of the technique for use in quality control of medicinal products. We have also pointed out the use of metabolomics to distinguish varieties and to identify best methods of cultivation, collection, as well as extraction.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The relevant information on medicinal value, phytochemical studies, metabolomics of W. somnifera, and their applications were collected from a rigorous electronic search through scientific databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar. Structures of selected metabolites were from the PubChem.

RESULTS

The pharmacological activities of W. somnifera were well documented. Roots are the most important parts of the plant used in Ayurvedic preparations. Stem and leaves also have a rich content of bioactive phytochemicals like steroidal lactones, alkaloids, and phenolic acids. Metabolomic studies revealed that metabolite profiles of W. somnifera depended on plant parts collected and the developmental stage of the plant, besides the season of sample collection and geographical location. The levels of withanolides were variable, depending on the morpho/chemotypes within the species of W. somnifera. Although studies on W. somnifera were initiated several years ago, the complexity of secondary metabolites was not realized due to the lack of adequate and fool-proof technology for phytochemical fingerprinting. Sophistications in chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry facilitated the discovery of several new metabolites. Mutually complementary techniques like LC-MS, GC-MS, HPTLC, and NMR were employed to obtain a comprehensive metabolomic profile. Subsequent data analyses and searches against spectral databases enabled the annotation of signals and dereplication of metabolites in several numbers without isolating them individually.

CONCLUSIONS

The present review provides a critical update of metabolomic data and the diverse application of the technique. The identification of parameters for standardization and quality control of herbal products is essential to facilitate mandatory checks for the purity of formulation. Such studies would enable us to identify the best geographical location of plants and the time of collection. We recommend the use of metabolomic analysis of herbal products based on W. somnifera for quality control as well as the discovery of novel bioactive compounds.

DNA damage by Withanone as a potential cause of liver toxicity observed for herbal products of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)

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The widely used medicinal herb Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) has been recently reported to cause liver damage.

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Withanone is a major metabolite of Ashwagandha.

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Withanone was found to cause DNA damage.

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Withanone forms adducts with amines and thiols.

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Withanone-mediated DNA damage has serious biological consequences.

Withania somnifera, commonly known as Ashwagandha, is a medicinal plant used for thousands of years for various remedies. Extracts of Ashwagandha contain more than 200 metabolites, with withanone (win) being one of the major ones responsible for many of its medicinal properties. Recently, several cases of liver toxicity resulting from commercially available Ashwagandha products have been reported. The first report of Ashwagandha-related liver damage was from Japan, which was quickly resolved after drug-withdrawal. Later, similar cases of liver toxicity due to Ashwagandha consumption were reported from the USA and Iceland. Towards understanding the liver toxicity of Ashwagandha extracts, we studied win, a representative withanolide having toxicophores or structural alerts that are commonly associated with adverse drug reactions. We found that win can form non-labile adducts with the nucleosides dG, dA, and dC. Using various biochemical assays, we showed that win forms adducts in DNA and interfere with its biological property. Win also forms adducts with amines and this process is reversible. Based on the data presented here we concluded that win is detoxified by GSH but under limiting GSH levels it can cause DNA damage. The work presented here provides a potential mechanism for the reported Ashwagandha-mediated liver damage.

Herbal Decoction Divya-Peedantak-Kwath Alleviates Allodynia and Hyperalgesia in Mice Model of Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy via Modulation in Cytokine Response

The widely used cancer treatment, chemotherapy, causes severe long-term neuropathic pain in 30–40% cases, the condition clinically known as chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). Approved conventional analgesics are sometimes ineffective, while others like opioids have undesirable side effects like addiction, seizures, and respiratory malfunctioning. Tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants, although exhibit anti-allodynic effects in neuropathy, also have unpleasant side effects. Thus, alternative medicines are being explored for CIPN treatment. Despite scattered reports on different extracts from different plants having potential anti-allodynic effects against CIPN, no established medicine or formulation of herbal origin exists. In this study, efficacy of an herbal decoction, formulated based on ancient medicinal principles and protocols for treating neuropathic pain, Divya-Peedantak-Kwath (DPK), has been evaluated in a paclitaxel (PTX)-induced peripheral neuropathic mouse model. We observed that DPK has prominent anti-allodynic and anti-hyperalgesic effects and acts as a nociceptive modulator for CIPN. With exhibited antioxidative effects, DPK restored the redox potential of the sciatic nerves to the normal. On histopathological evaluation, DPK prevented the PTX-induced lesions in the sciatic nerve, in a dose-dependent manner. It also prevented inflammation by modulating the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in CIPN pathogenesis. Our observations evinced that DPK can alleviate CIPN by attenuating oxidative stress and concomitant neuroinflammation through immune modulation.

Reversal of Peripheral Neuropathic Pain by the Small-Molecule Natural Product Physalin F via Block of CaV2.3 (R-Type) and CaV2.2 (N-Type) Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels

No universally efficacious therapy exists for chronic pain, a disease affecting one-fifth of the global population. An overreliance on the prescription of opioids for chronic pain despite their poor ability to improve function has led to a national opioid crisis. In 2018, the NIH launched a Helping to End Addiction Long-term plan to spur discovery and validation of novel targets and mechanisms to develop alternative nonaddictive treatment options. Phytochemicals with medicinal properties have long been used for various treatments worldwide. The natural product physalin F, isolated from the Physalis acutifolia (family: Solanaceae) herb, demonstrated antinociceptive effects in models of inflammatory pain, consistent with earlier reports of its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. However, the target of action of physalin F remained unknown. Here, using whole-cell and slice electrophysiology, competition binding assays, and experimental models of neuropathic pain, we uncovered a molecular target for physalin F's antinociceptive actions. We found that physalin F (i) blocks CaV2.3 (R-type) and CaV2.2 (N-type) voltage-gated calcium channels in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, (ii) does not affect CaV3 (T-type) voltage-gated calcium channels or voltage-gated sodium or potassium channels, (iii) does not bind G-protein coupled opioid receptors, (iv) inhibits the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in spinal cord slices, and (v) reverses tactile hypersensitivity in models of paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy and spinal nerve ligation. Identifying CaV2.2 as a molecular target of physalin F may spur its use as a tool for mechanistic studies and position it as a structural template for future synthetic compounds.

Inhibition of Morphine- and Ethanol-Mediated Stimulation of Mesolimbic Dopamine Neurons by Withania somnifera

Morphine- and ethanol-induced stimulation of neuronal firing of ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopaminergic neurons and of dopamine (DA) transmission in the shell of the nucleus accumbens (AcbSh) represents a crucial electrophysiological and neurochemical response underlying the ability of these compounds to elicit motivated behaviors and trigger a cascade of plasticity-related biochemical events. Previous studies indicate that the standardized methanolic extract of Withania somnifera roots (WSE) prevents morphine- and ethanol-elicited conditioned place preference and oral ethanol self-administration. Aim of the present research was to investigate whether WSE may also interfere with the ability of morphine and ethanol to stimulate VTA dopaminergic neurons and thus AcbSh DA transmission as assessed in male Sprague-Dawley rats by means of patch-clamp recordings in mesencephalic slices and in vivo brain microdialysis, respectively. Morphine and ethanol significantly stimulated spontaneous firing rate of VTA neurons and DA transmission in the AcbSh. WSE, at concentrations (200-400 μg/ml) that significantly reduce spontaneous neuronal firing of VTA DA neurons via a GABA_A- but not GABA_B-mediated mechanism, suppressed the stimulatory actions of both morphine and ethanol. Moreover, in vivo administration of WSE at a dose (75 mg/kg) that fails to affect basal DA transmission, significantly prevented both morphine- and ethanol-elicited increases of DA in the AcbSh. Overall, these results highlight the ability of WSE to interfere with morphine- and ethanol-mediated central effects and suggest a mechanistic interpretation of the efficacy of this extract to prevent the motivational properties of these compounds.

An anti-cancerous protein fraction from Withania somnifera induces ROS-dependent mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

Withania somnifera exhibits different pharmacological activities which mainly stem from its broad range of bioactive molecules. Majority of these bioactive molecules, fall into the groupings of alkaloids, steroidal lactones, phenolic compounds and glycoproteins. In this study, we evaluated a novel protein fraction, named here as WSPF, isolated from Withania somnifera roots for its cytotoxic properties against various human cancer cell lines. WSPF exhibited apoptotic activity for each cancer cell line tested, demonstrating significant activity against MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells with an IC₅₀ value of 92 μg/mL. WSPF induced mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells via extensive reactive oxygen species generation, dysregulation of Bax/Bcl-2, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and caspase-3 activation. Additionally, we observed G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest, cleavage of nuclear lamin A/C proteins, and nuclear morphological changes. The present results highlight the anti-cancer properties of WSPF, indicating that the proteins in this fraction can be potential therapeutic agents for triple negative breast cancer treatment.

Neuroprotective effects of Withania somnifera in BPA induced-cognitive dysfunction and oxidative stress in mice

Background

Bisphenol A (BPA), a major endocrine disruptor and a xenobiotic compound is used abundantly in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Human exposure to this compound is primarily via its leaching from the protective internal epoxy resin coatings of containers into the food and beverages. In addition, the plastics used in dental prostheses and sealants also contain considerable amount of BPA and have a high risk of human exposure. Since it is a well-known endocrine disruptor and closely mimics the molecular structure of human estrogen thereby impairing learning and memory. Withania somnifera (Ws), commonly known as Ashwagandha is known for its varied therapeutic uses in Ayurvedic system of medicine. The present study was undertaken to demonstrate the impairment induced by BPA on the spatial learning, working memory and its alleviation by Ws in Swiss albino mice. The study was conducted on thirty Swiss albino mice, randomly distributed among three groups: control, BPA and BPA + Ws. The behavioral recovery after treatment with Ws was investigated using the Y-maize and Morris water maize test. Whereas, for the estimation of recovery of NMDA receptor which is related to learning and memory in hippocampus region by western blot and immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, the oxidative stress and antioxidant level was assessed by biochemical tests like MDA, SOD and catalase.

Results

The study revealed that administration of Ws alleviated the behavioral deficits induced by BPA. Alongside, Ws treatment reinstated the number of NMDA receptors in hippocampus region and showed anti-oxidative property while ameliorating the endogenous anti-oxidant level in the brain.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that Ws significantly ameliorates the level of BPA intoxicated oxidative stress thereby potentially treating cognitive dysfunction which acts as the primary symptom in a number of neurodegenerative diseases.

Withaferin A protects against spinal cord injury by inhibiting apoptosis and inflammation in mice

CONTEXT

Withaferin A (WFA) exhibits diverse pharmaceutical applications on human diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, cancers and microbial infection.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the neuroprotective role of WFA using a mouse model of spinal cord injury (SCI).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BALB/c mice were administrated 10 mg/kg of WFA. Gene expression was measured by real-time PCR, western blot and immunohistochemistry. Cell morphology and apoptosis were determined by H&E staining and TUNEL assay. Motor function was evaluated by the BBB functional scale for continuous 7 weeks.

RESULTS

WFA significantly improved neurobehavioural function and alleviated histological alteration of spinal cord tissues in traumatized mice. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) significantly increased in WFA-treated mice. Meanwhile, the expression of Nogo-A and RhoA remarkably decreased in the presence of WFA. Furthermore, the apoptotic cell death was attenuated in mice treated with WFA (31.48 ± 2.50% vs. 50.08 ± 2.08%) accompanied by decreased bax and increased bcl-2. In addition, WFA decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators such as IL-1β (11.20 ± 1.96 ng/mL vs. 17.59 ± 1.42 ng/mL) and TNF-α (57.38 ± 3.57 pg/mL vs. 95.06 ± 9.13 pg/mL). The anti-inflammatory cytokines including TGF-β1 (14.32 ± 1.04 pg/mL vs. 9.37 ± 1.17 pg/mL) and IL-10 (116.80 ± 6.91 pg/mL vs. 72.33 ± 9.35 pg/mL) were elevated after WFA administration.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that WFA has a neuroprotective role by inhibition of apoptosis and inflammation after SCI in mice.

Novel Methods to Generate Active Ingredients-Enriched Ashwagandha Leaves and Extracts

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is an Ayurvedic herb commonly used in world-renowned traditional Indian home medicine system. Roots of Ashwagandha have been traditionally known to possess a variety of therapeutic and health promoting potentials that have not been sufficiently supported by laboratory studies. Nevertheless, most, if not all, of the preventive and therapeutic potentials have been assigned to its bioactive components, steroidal alkaloids and lactones. In contrast to the traditional use of roots, we have been exploring bioactivities in leaves of Ashwagandha. Here, we report that the leaves possess higher content of active Withanolides, Withaferin-A (Wi-A) and Withanone (Wi-N), as compared to the roots. We also established, for the first time, hydroponic cultivation of Ashwagandha and investigated the effect of various cultivation conditions on the content of Wi-A and Wi-N by chemical analysis and bioassays. We report that the Withanone/Withaferin A-rich leaves could be obtained by manipulating light condition during hydroponic cultivation. Furthermore, we recruited cyclodextrins to prepare extracts with desired ratio of Wi-N and Wi-A. Hydroponically grown Ashwagandha and its extracts with high ratio of withanolides are valuable for cancer treatment.

Lectins from Synadenium carinatum (ScLL) and Artocarpus heterophyllus (ArtinM) Are Able to Induce Beneficial Immunomodulatory Effects in a Murine Model for Treatment of Toxoplasma gondii Infection

Infection by Toxoplasma gondii affects around one-third of world population and the treatment for patients presenting toxoplasmosis clinically manifested disease is mainly based by a combination of sulfadiazine, pyrimethamine, and folinic acid. However, this therapeutic protocol is significantly toxic, causing relevant dose-related bone marrow damage. Thus, it is necessary to improve new approaches to investigate the usefulness of more effective and non-toxic agents for treatment of patients with toxoplasmosis. It has been described that lectins from plants can control parasite infections, when used as immunological adjuvants in vaccination procedures. This type of lectins, such as ArtinM and ScLL is able to induce immunostimulatory activities, including efficient immune response against parasites. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential immunostimulatory effect of ScLL and ArtinM for treatment of T. gondii infection during acute phase, considering that there is no study in the literature accomplishing this issue. For this purpose, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were treated with different concentrations from each lectin to determine the maximum concentration without or with lowest cytotoxic effect. After, it was also measured the cytokine levels produced by these cells when stimulated by the selected concentrations of lectins. We found that ScLL showed high capacity to induce of pro-inflammatory cytokine production, while ArtinM was able to induce especially an anti-inflammatory cytokines production. Furthermore, both lectins were able to increase NO levels. Next, we evaluated the treatment effect of ScLL and ArtinM in C57BL/6 mice infected by ME49 strain from T. gondii. The animals were infected and treated with ScLL, ArtinM, ArtinM plus ScLL, or sulfadiazine, and the following parameters analyzed: Cytokines production, brain parasite burden and survival rates. Our results demonstrated that the ScLL or ScLL plus ArtinM treatment induced production of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, showing differential but complementary profiles. Moreover, when compared with non-treated mice, the parasite burden was significantly lower and survival rates higher in mice treated with ScLL or ScLL plus ArtinM, similarly with sulfadiazine treatment. In conclusion, the results demonstrated the suitable potential immunotherapeutic effect of ScLL and ArtinM lectins to control acute toxoplasmosis in this experimental murine model.

Comparative evaluation of the sexual functions and NF-κB and Nrf2 pathways of some aphrodisiac herbal extracts in male rats

Background

Mucuna pruriens, Tribulus terrestris and Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) are widely known as antioxidant effective herbals and have been reported to possess aphrodisiac activities in traditional usages. In this study, we determined the effects of these herbals on sexual functions, serum biochemical parameters, oxidative stress and levels of NF-κB, Nrf2, and HO-1 in reproductive tissues.

Methods

Thirty-five male rats were divided into five groups: the control group, sildenafil-treated group (5 mg/kg/d), Mucuna, Tribulus and Ashwagandha groups. The extract groups were treated orally either with Mucuna, Tribulus or Ashwagandha (300 mg/kg b.w.) for 8 weeks.

Results

All of the extracts were found to be significantly effective in sexual functioning and antioxidant capacity and Tribulus showed the highest effectiveness. Serum testosterone levels significantly increased in Tribulus and Ashwagandha groups in comparison to control group. Tribulus was able to reduce the levels of NF-κB and increase the levels of Nrf2 and HO-1 to a much greater extent than Mucuna and Ashwagandha.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate for the first time that Mucuna, Tribulus and Ashwagandha supplementation improves sexual function in male rats via activating Nrf2/ HO-1 pathway while inhibiting the NF-κB levels. Moreover, Tribulus terrestris extract was found to be more bioavailable from Ashwagandha extract followed by Mucuna extract.

Graphical abstract

Schematic representation of the mode of action of some aphrodisiac herbal extracts to improve sexual functions