Born to sing! Song development in a singing primate

In animal vocal communication, the development of adult-like vocalization is fundamental to interact appropriately with conspecifics. However, the factors that guide ontogenetic changes in the acoustic features remain poorly understood. In contrast with a historical view of nonhuman primate vocal production as substantially innate, recent research suggests that inheritance and physiological modification can only explain some of the developmental changes in call structure during growth. A particular case of acoustic communication is the indris' singing behavior, a peculiar case among Strepsirrhine primates. Thanks to a decade of intense data collection, this work provides the first long-term quantitative analysis on song development in a singing primate. To understand the ontogeny of such a complex vocal output, we investigated juvenile and sub-adult indris' vocal behavior, and we found that young individuals started participating in the chorus years earlier than previously reported. Our results indicated that spectro-temporal song parameters underwent essential changes during growth. In particular, the age and sex of the emitter influenced the indris' vocal activity. We found that frequency parameters showed consistent changes across the sexes, but the temporal features showed different developmental trajectories for males and females. Given the low level of morphological sexual dimorphism and the marked differences in vocal behavior, we hypothesize that factors like social influences and auditory feedback may affect songs' features, resulting in high vocal flexibility in juvenile indris. This trait may be pivotal in a species that engages in choruses with rapid vocal turn-taking.

Androgen receptors and sexual dimorphisms in the larynx of the bullfrog

As in most anuran amphibians, both male and female bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) vocalize. Sex differences in vocalizations in the bullfrog may be due to sex differences in the larynx. We examined the laryngeal muscle to determine whether it possessed androgen receptors and whether there were morphological sexual dimorphisms in the larynx. Using a polyclonal antibody and immunocytochemistry, we found androgen receptors in the laryngeal dilator muscle of both sexes. Males possessed approximately 13% more receptor-positive muscle nuclei than females. We also stained the dilator muscle for the presence of succinate dehydrogenase. Density of staining for the enzyme was significantly greater in male muscle than in female muscle, indicating greater oxidative capacity of muscle in males. This procedure also showed both a significantly greater cross-sectional area for the dilator muscle in males and a greater area for individual fibers. Male muscle consisted almost entirely of fast-twitch oxidative/glycolytic fibers. Female muscle contained a mixture of fast-twitch glycolytic fibers and two subclasses of fast-twitch oxidative/glycolytic fibers. Finally, both the length and width of the entire laryngeal complex and the length and width of the dilator were significantly greater in males than in females. In summary, laryngeal muscle of bullfrogs possessed androgen receptors and is thus likely to be androgen sensitive. Androgens, during development or at adulthood, may be responsible for the anatomic and enzymatic sexual dimorphisms in the larynx.