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Escobedo-Morales LA, León-Paniagua L, Martínez-Meyer E, Mandujano S. Reevaluation of the status of the Central American brocket deer Mazama temama (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) subspecies based on morphological and environmental evidence. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The Central American brocket deer (Mazama temama) is widespread across the Mesoamerican forests, yet it remains largely unknown. Three subspecies are recognized currently within M. temama using pelage coloration as the primary diagnostic character. However, it remains unclear if there is any pattern of morphological variation throughout its distribution. We compared two models of morphological subdivision, namely the traditional subspecies and another based on biogeographic provinces via 2D geometric morphometrics and ecological niche modeling. The second model presented a better fit to the observed variation in cranial shape and size. We found divergence in skull size between individuals from Mexico and Guatemala (northern group) relative to specimens from Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama (southern group), the latter being 8% larger than the northern group. Centroid size showed a significant correlation with geographic distance suggesting an isolation-by-distance pattern. Low geographical overlap between the two clusters suggests niche conservatism. Late Pleistocene dispersal from South to Central America and differences in available resources with subsequent isolation due to climatic barriers therefore may have promoted differentiation in size albeit without extensive changes in shape. In this context, the Motagua-Polochic-Jolotán fault system probably plays a key role in promoting morphological differentiation by climatic isolation. Finally, we suggest that M. t. temama (Kerr, 1792) and M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913 should remain as valid names for the two morphological and ecologically differentiated groups detected here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A Escobedo-Morales
- Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , Edificio D, Primer piso, Circuito de Posgrados, Apartado Postal 70-153, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City 04510 , Mexico
| | - Livia León-Paniagua
- Museo de Zoología “Alfonso L. Herrera,” Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City 04510 , Mexico
| | - Enrique Martínez-Meyer
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City 04510 , Mexico
| | - Salvador Mandujano
- Red de Biología y Conservación de Vertebrados, Instituto de Ecología , A.C., Carretera antigua a Coatepec 351, Colonia El Haya, Xalapa 91070 , Mexico
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Bernegossi AM, Borges CHDS, Sandoval EDP, Cartes JL, Cernohorska H, Kubickova S, Vozdova M, Caparroz R, González S, Duarte JMB. Resurrection of the genus Subulo Smith, 1827 for the gray brocket deer, with designation of a neotype. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The gray brocket deer, Mazama gouazoubiraG. Fischer, 1814, occurs in South America and presents an extensive degree of morphological and genetic variability. Previous phylogenetic research showed that the genus Mazama is polyphyletic and imposed the designation of a different genus-group name for M. gouazoubira. We aimed to review and clarify the taxonomy of M. gouazoubira through the proposal of updating the nomenclature for this taxon and by the characterization of specimens collected close to the original type locality (topotypes). The topotypes were characterized by morphological (general characterization and morphometry), cytogenetic (conventional staining, Ag-NOR, G- and C-banding, and fluorescence in situ hybridization), and phylogenetic (mitogenomes) approaches. We revealed chromosome homologies between cattle and M. gouazoubira using an entire set of cattle whole chromosome painting probes and propose an updated G-band idiogram for the species. The morphometric analysis did not discriminate the individuals of M. gouazoubira, including the topotypes, from other small brocket deer species. However, the phylogenetic analysis, based on a Bayesian inference tree of the mitogenomes, confirmed the polyphyly of the genus Mazama and supported the need to change the gray brocket deer genus-group name. Based on our revision, we validated the genus SubuloSmith, 1827, and fixed a type species for the genus. In the absence of the holotype, we denominated a neotype described by the collection of a male topotype in Paraguay. The nomenclature rearrangement presented here is a starting point that will assist in the taxonomic resolution of Neotropical deer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agda Maria Bernegossi
- Núcleo de Pesquisa e Conservação de Cervídeos (NUPECCE), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias da Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) , Jaboticabal , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Carolina Heloisa de Souza Borges
- Núcleo de Pesquisa e Conservação de Cervídeos (NUPECCE), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias da Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) , Jaboticabal , São Paulo , Brazil
- Centro de Aquicultura da Unesp (CAUNESP) , Jaboticabal , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Eluzai Dinai Pinto Sandoval
- Núcleo de Pesquisa e Conservação de Cervídeos (NUPECCE), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias da Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) , Jaboticabal , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - José Luis Cartes
- Guyra Paraguay, Avda Cnel Bóveda , Parque del Río, Viñas Cue, Asunción , Paraguay
| | - Halina Cernohorska
- Department of Genetics and Reproductive Biotechnologies, Central European Institute of Technology—Veterinary Research Institute , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Svatava Kubickova
- Department of Genetics and Reproductive Biotechnologies, Central European Institute of Technology—Veterinary Research Institute , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Miluse Vozdova
- Department of Genetics and Reproductive Biotechnologies, Central European Institute of Technology—Veterinary Research Institute , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Renato Caparroz
- Departamento de Genética e Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília , Brasília , Brazil
| | - Susana González
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Genética, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable , Montevidéo , Uruguay
| | - José Maurício Barbanti Duarte
- Núcleo de Pesquisa e Conservação de Cervídeos (NUPECCE), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias da Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) , Jaboticabal, São Paulo , Brazil
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Mantellatto AMB, González S, Duarte JMB. Molecular identification of Mazama species (Cervidae: Artiodactyla) from natural history collections. Genet Mol Biol 2020; 43:e20190008. [PMID: 32215543 PMCID: PMC7197991 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2019-0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural history museum collections constitute an invaluable patrimony of
biological diversity for analysing the taxa distribution and evolution. However,
it is very common to discover taxonomic misidentification in museum collections
based on incorrect data. The aim of this research was to identify brocket deer
species (Mazama genus) using molecular markers. We collected
199 samples, performed DNA extraction and species identification using a
specific mitochondrial marker based on a fragment of cytochrome b
(Cytb) for Neotropical deer. We achieved the amplification
and sequencing of 77 specimens and verified that 26% of the skulls were wrongly
identified. Moreover, in the museum collections 57% of the specimens were only
identified as Mazama sp, and we were able to identify them by
molecular methods to the species level. Our findings clearly demonstrate the
importance of integrating molecular analyses to identify Mazama
species, since using only external morphology can result in a high probability
of errors. We recommend the selection of non-convergent morphological
characters, which together with the use of DNA collected from museum specimens
should contribute to more accurate taxonomic identifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Meira Bonfim Mantellatto
- Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquota Filho" (UNESP), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Núcleo de Pesquisa e Conservação de Cervídeos, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil.,Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Centro de Formação em Ciências Ambientais, Laboratório de Ecologia e Conservação Marinha, Campus Sosígenes Costa, Porto Seguro, BA, Brazil
| | - Susana González
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Genética, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - José Maurício Barbanti Duarte
- Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquota Filho" (UNESP), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Núcleo de Pesquisa e Conservação de Cervídeos, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
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Heckeberg NS. The systematics of the Cervidae: a total evidence approach. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8114. [PMID: 32110477 PMCID: PMC7034380 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Systematic relationships of cervids have been controversial for decades. Despite new input from molecular systematics, consensus could only be partially reached. The initial, gross (sub) classification based on morphology and comparative anatomy was mostly supported by molecular data. The rich fossil record of cervids has never been extensively tested in phylogenetic frameworks concerning potential systematic relationships of fossil cervids to extant cervids. The aim of this work was to investigate the systematic relationships of extant and fossil cervids using molecular and morphological characters and make implications about their evolutionary history based on the phylogenetic reconstructions. To achieve these objectives, molecular data were compiled consisting of five nuclear markers and the complete mitochondrial genome of 50 extant and one fossil cervids. Several analyses using different data partitions, taxon sampling, partitioning schemes, and optimality criteria were undertaken. In addition, the most extensive morphological character matrix for such a broad cervid taxon sampling was compiled including 168 cranial and dental characters of 41 extant and 29 fossil cervids. The morphological and molecular data were analysed in a combined approach and other comprehensive phylogenetic reconstructions. The results showed that most Miocene cervids were more closely related to each other than to any other cervids. They were often positioned between the outgroup and all other cervids or as the sister taxon to Muntiacini. Two Miocene cervids were frequently placed within Muntiacini. Plio- and Pleistocene cervids could often be affiliated to Cervini, Odocoileini or Capreolini. The phylogenetic analyses provide new insights into the evolutionary history of cervids. Several fossil cervids could be successfully related to living representatives, confirming previously assumed affiliations based on comparative morphology and introducing new hypotheses. New systematic relationships were observed, some uncertainties persisted and resolving systematics within certain taxa remained challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola S. Heckeberg
- Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
- SNSB-Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und Geologie, Munich, Germany
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Palaeontology & Geobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Berlin, Germany
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5
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Escobedo-Morales LA, Mandujano S, Eguiarte LE, Rodríguez-Rodríguez MA, Maldonado JE. First phylogenetic analysis of Mesoamerican brocket deer Mazama pandora and Mazama temama (Cetartiodactyla: Cervidae) based on mitochondrial sequences: Implications for Neotropical deer evolution. Mamm Biol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mambio.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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6
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7
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Weber M, Gonzalez S. Latin American deer diversity and conservation: A review of status and distribution. ECOSCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/11956860.2003.11682792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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8
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Geburek T, Wuehlisch GV, Muhs HJ. Genetic variation in isozymes of wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus Linné). J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0469.1991.tb00444.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Duarte JMB, González S, Maldonado JE. The surprising evolutionary history of South American deer. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2008; 49:17-22. [PMID: 18675919 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2007] [Revised: 06/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
To clarify the systematic relationships and evolutionary history of South American deer, we conducted a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis using representative species of all of the genera of Neotropical deer. Our results revealed high levels of molecular and cytogenetic divergence between groups of morphologically similar species of brockets (Mazama), and suggest a polyphyletic origin. At least eight ancestral forms of deer invaded South America during the late Pliocene (2.5-3 MYA), and members of the red brockets had an independent early explosive diversification soon after their ancestor arrived there, giving rise to a number of morphologically cryptic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Maurício Barbanti Duarte
- Nucleo de Pesquisa e Conservacao de Cervideos, Departamento de Zootecnia, Sao Paulo State University, CEP 14884-900, Jaboticabal-SP, Brazil.
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Abstract
Twenty enzyme loci were investigated using starch gel electrophoresis in managed populations of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and sika deer (C. nippon) from Ireland. The red deer, which originated from several European countries, were polymorphic (%P) at 25% of the loci examined and exhibited a mean heterozygosity (H) of 0.025. The sika, originally from Japan, were introduced to Ireland in very limited numbers. Here, %P was 5% and H was 0.006. Mean genetic distance (D) between these taxa was 0.160. Because Scottish red deer, the source of much of the Irish herd, had previously been investigated for 16 of the same enzyme loci, it was possible to merge the present data with results from that earlier study, which also included North American wapiti (C. elaphus canadensis). The resulting phenogram based on genetic distance demonstrates that sika are twice as distantly related to red deer and wapiti, than the latter are to each other and suggests that sika-like forms are ancestral. Also, the demonstration of absolute mobility differences in the products of two enzyme loci in red deer and sika has many practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Linnell
- Department of Zoology, University College, Cork, Ireland
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11
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Hundertmark KJ, Bowyer RT, Shields GF, Schwartz CC, Smith MH. Colonization history and taxonomy of moose Alces alces in southeastern Alaska inferred from mtDNA variation. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2006. [DOI: 10.2981/0909-6396(2006)12[331:chatom]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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12
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Price SA, Bininda-Emonds ORP, Gittleman JL. A complete phylogeny of the whales, dolphins and even-toed hoofed mammals (Cetartiodactyla). Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2005; 80:445-73. [PMID: 16094808 DOI: 10.1017/s1464793105006743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Despite the biological and economic importance of the Cetartiodactyla, the phylogeny of this clade remains controversial. Using the supertree approach of matrix representation with parsimony, we present the first phylogeny to include all 290 extant species of the Cetacea (whales and dolphins) and Artiodactyla (even-toed hoofed mammals). At the family-level, the supertree is fully resolved. For example, the relationships among the Ruminantia appear as (((Cervidae, Moschidae) Bovidae) (Giraffidae, Antilocapridae) Tragulidae). However, due to either lack of phylogenetic study or contradictory information, polytomies occur within the clades Sus, Muntiacus, Cervus, Delphinidae, Ziphiidae and Bovidae. Complete species-level phylogenies are necessary for both illustrating and analysing biological, geographical and ecological patterns in an evolutionary framework. The present species-level tree of the Cetartiodactyla provides the first opportunity to examine comparative hypotheses across entirely aquatic and terrestrial species within a single mammalian order.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha A Price
- Department of Biology, Gilmer Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4328, USA.
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Hernández Fernández M, Vrba ES. A complete estimate of the phylogenetic relationships in Ruminantia: a dated species-level supertree of the extant ruminants. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2005; 80:269-302. [PMID: 15921052 DOI: 10.1017/s1464793104006670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents the first complete estimate of the phylogenetic relationships among all 197 species of extant and recently extinct ruminants combining morphological, ethological and molecular information. The composite tree is derived by applying matrix representation using parsimony analysis to 164 previous partial estimates, and is remarkably well resolved, containing 159 nodes (> 80 % of the potential nodes in the completely resolved phylogeny). Bremer decay index has been used to indicate the degree of certainty associated with each clade. The ages of over 80% of the clades in the tree have been estimated from information in the literature. The supertree for Ruminantia illustrates which areas of ruminant phylogeny are still only roughly known because of taxa with controversial relationships (e.g. Odocoileini, Antilopinae) or not studied in great detail (e.g. Muntiacus). It supports the monophyly of the ruminant families and Pecora. According to this analysis Antilocapridae and Giraffidae constitute the superfamily Giraffoidea, which is the sister group of a clade clustering Bovoidea and Cervoidea. The position of several taxa whose systematic positions have remained controversial in the past (Saiga, Pelea, Aepycerus, Pantholops, Ammotragus, Pseudois) is unambiguously established. Nevertheless, the position of Neotragus and Oreotragus within the original radiation of the non-bovine bovids remains unresolved in the present analysis. It also shows that six successive rapid cladogenesis events occurred within the infraorder Pecora during the Oligocene to middle Pliocene, which coincided with periods of global climatic change. Finally, the presented supertree will be a useful framework for comparative and evolutionary biologists interested in studies involving the ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Hernández Fernández
- Departamento de Paleobiología, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, C/ Josí Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006, Madrid, Spain.
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14
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de Oliveira EJF, Garcia JE, Contel EPB, Duarte JMB. Genetic Structure of Blastocerus dichotomus Populations in the Paraná River Basin (Brazil) Based on Protein Variability. Biochem Genet 2005; 43:211-22. [PMID: 16144298 DOI: 10.1007/s10528-005-5212-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The population structure of 147 marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) from three areas in the Paraná River basin, Brazil, was studied by observing protein polymorphism at 17 loci. Six loci were polymorphic and 11 monomorphic. The proportion of polymorphic loci (P) was 35.29% and the average heterozygosity (H) was 6.31%. Wright's FST indicated that only 4.9% of the total variation in allelic frequencies was due to genetic differences between the three groups. The high value of F(IS) (0.246) indicated inbreeding in the marsh deer. Genetic distance values (D = 0.014-0.051) showed little divergence between the three areas. We suggest that probable mechanisms accounting for the genetic structure are female phylopatry and polygyny and also that inbreeding has resulted from decreasing areas of wetland leading to isolation, overhunting, and diseases transmitted by cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J F de Oliveira
- Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Moscarella RA, Aguilera M, Escalante AA. PHYLOGEOGRAPHY, POPULATION STRUCTURE, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CONSERVATION OF WHITE-TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) IN VENEZUELA. J Mammal 2003. [DOI: 10.1644/brb-028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Abstract
Taxonomy does not deserve its reputation as an arcane science. As the following examples from ungulate taxonomy show, classification has important implications for conservation legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Geist
- Faculty of Environmental Design, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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18
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Genetische Differenzierung anhand biochemisch-genetischer Polymorphismen in der Familie derCervidae. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 1988. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02283063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Hartl GB, Reimoser F. Biochemical variation in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.): are r-strategists among deer genetically less variable than K-strategists? Heredity (Edinb) 1988; 60 ( Pt 2):221-7. [PMID: 3366627 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.1988.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue samples from 161 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) from 5 populations in Austria were screened for allelic variation at 41 presumptive genetic loci by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. The proportion of polymorphic loci ranged from 14.6 per cent to 19.5 per cent, the values for expected average heterozygosity from 3.5 per cent to 7.9 per cent. These values are among the highest ones yet found among deer species. The relationship between biochemical genetic variation, body size and ecological strategy of adaptation is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Hartl
- Forschungsinstitut für Wildtierkunde der Veterinärmedizinischen Universität Wien, Austria
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Breshears DD, Smith MH, Cothran EG, Johns PE. Genetic variability in white-tailed deer. Heredity (Edinb) 1988; 60 ( Pt 1):139-46. [PMID: 3350698 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.1988.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic variability at 36 loci was studied in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations, on the Savannah River Plant (SRP) in South Carolina. Mean multilocus heterozygosity (H), percentage of polymorphic loci (P) and average number of alleles per locus (A) for white-tailed deer were calculated and compared with values for white-tailed deer from several locations (SRP deer: H = 9.9 per cent, P0.05 = 30.6 per cent, A = 1.89; white-tailed deer overall: H = 10.4 per cent, P0.05 = 32.3 per cent, A = 1.94). Frequency distributions for single locus heterozygosity values (h) and the number of alleles per locus for white-tailed deer were found to be significantly different from those of mammals in general. Analysis of single-locus data based on quaternary structure and functional groups of proteins failed to demonstrate expected differences as predicted from the literature. White-tailed deer have a high level of heterozygosity, but they do not exhibit many of the life history and environmental characteristics associated with high heterozygosity in other animals.
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