Prescribing Paradigm Shift? Applying the 2019 European Society of Cardiology-Led Guidelines on Diabetes, Prediabetes, and Cardiovascular Disease to Assess Eligibility for Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors or Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonists as First-Line Monotherapy (or Add-on to Metformin Monotherapy) in Type 2 Diabetes in Scotland

Diabetes and Heart Failure: A Literature Review, Reflection and Outlook

Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome caused by structural or functional dysfunction of the ventricular filling or blood supply. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an independent predictor of mortality for HF. The increase in prevalence, co-morbidity and hospitalization rates of both DM and HF has further fueled the possibility of overlapping disease pathology between the two. For decades, antidiabetic drugs that are known to definitively increase the risk of HF are the thiazolidinediones (TZDs) and saxagliptin in the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, and insulin, which causes sodium and water retention, and whether metformin is effective or safe for HF is not clear. Notably, sodium-glucose transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and partial glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) all achieved positive results for HF endpoints, with SGLT2 inhibitors in particular significantly reducing the composite endpoint of cardiovascular mortality and hospitalization for heart failure (HHF). Further understanding of the mutual pathophysiological mechanisms between HF and DM may facilitate the detection of novel therapeutic targets to improve the clinical outcome. This review focuses on the association between HF and DM, emphasizing the efficacy and safety of antidiabetic drugs and HF treatment. In addition, recent therapeutic advances in HF and the important mechanisms by which SGLT2 inhibitors/mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (MRA)/vericiguat contribute to the benefits of HF are summarized.

Outcomes of Prediabetes Compared with Normoglycaemia and Diabetes Mellitus in Patients Undergoing Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background: Patients with prediabetes are at increased risk of coronary artery disease (CAD). However, the association between prediabetes and adverse clinical outcomes following percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is inconsistent, in contrast to outcomes in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). Thus, this meta-analysis evaluated the impact of dysglycaemia on PCI outcomes. Methods: The PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and ClinicalTrials.gov databases were systematically reviewed from inception of databases until June 2022. In 17 studies, outcomes of PCI in patients with prediabetes were compared with patients who were normoglycaemic, and patients with DM. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality at the longest follow-up. Results: Included were 12 prospective and five retrospective studies, with 11,868, 14,894 and 13,536 patients undergoing PCI in the prediabetes, normoglycaemic and DM groups, respectively. Normoglycaemic patients had a statistically lower risk of all-cause mortality, (risk ratio [RR] 0.66, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.52-0.84), myocardial infarction (MI; RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.61-0.95) and cardiac mortality (RR 0.58, 95% CI 0.39-0.87) compared with prediabetic patients undergoing PCI at the longest follow-up. Patients with prediabetes had a lower risk of all-cause mortality (RR=0.72 [95% CI 0.53-0.97]) and cardiac mortality (RR =0.47 [95% CI 0.23-0.93]) compared with patients with DM who underwent PCI. Conclusion: Among patients who underwent PCI for CAD, the risk of all-cause and cardiac mortality, major adverse cardiovascular events and MI in prediabetic patients was higher compared with normoglycaemic patients but lower compared with patients with DM.

Nationwide cardiovascular risk categorization: applying the European Society of Cardiology guidelines to the Swedish National Diabetes Register

AIMS

The 2021 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines recommend that patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) with a very high cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk receive cardiovascular (CV)-protective glucose-lowering medication (glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists or sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors). This analysis compared previous prescribing practices with the ESC recommendations.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Patients in the Swedish National Diabetes Register (NDR) with T2D, aged 18-90 years, not receiving CV-protective glucose-lowering medication in 2017 were identified, and the ESC criteria for very high CVD risk were applied. The composite outcome of major adverse CV events (MACEs; defined as CV death, non-fatal stroke or non-fatal myocardial infarction) during 2017 was calculated, and the number of MACE avoided with semaglutide, an example of a CV-protective glucose-lowering medication, was estimated for patients with a certain CV risk score. Of the 320 028 patients in the NDR with T2D who were not receiving CV-protective glucose-lowering medication, 129 512 patients had a very high CVD risk. Patients with a very high CVD risk had a high incidence of MACE (75.4 events/1000 person-years), which was higher in those with atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) with and without elevated glycated haemoglobin (>9%; 136.5 and 90.8 events/1000 person-years, respectively). If patients with a very high CVD risk, according to the ESC, and ASCVD received semaglutide, 803 MACE may have been avoided in 2017.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis highlights differences between previous prescribing practices in Sweden and the 2021 ESC guidelines and offers strategies to prioritize CV-protective glucose-lowering medication for patients who would benefit most.

Integrated analysis for treatment scheme of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in patients with diabetic kidney disease: a real-world study

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are recommended for type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with impaired renal function, but the actual situation of SGLT2i using is unclear. Therefore, in this real-world study, we analyzed the treatment scheme and clinical characteristics of SGLT2i in patients with diabetic kidney disease (DKD). We included DKD patients hospitalized in the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University from October 2017 to March 2020. The Apriori algorithm of association rules was used to analysis treatment scheme prescribing SGLT2i and other different combinations of hypoglycemic drugs. SGLT2i was used in 781 (12.3%) of 6336 DKD patients, both number and proportion of patients using SGLT2i increased from 2017 to 2020 (1.9% to 33%). Nighty-eight percent of all DKD patients using SGLT2i were combined with other glucose-lowering agents, and insulin, metformin and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are most commonly used in combination with hypoglycemic drugs. Multivariate analysis showed that compared with non-SGLT2i group, patients using SGLT2i were associated with younger age, higher BMI, higher HbA1c, preserved kidney function, dyslipidemia and combined with ACEI/ARB and statins. In this real-world study, use of SGLT2i in DKD patients is still low. Most patients performed younger age and in the early stages of chronic kidney disease with poor glycemic control. Clinical inertia should be overcome to fully exert the cardiorenal protective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors, with attention to rational drug use.

Integrating Coronary Atherosclerosis Burden and Progression with Coronary Artery Disease Risk Factors to Guide Therapeutic Decision Making

IMPORTANCE

Although atherosclerosis represents the primary driver of coronary artery disease, evaluation and treatment approaches have historically relied upon indirect markers of atherosclerosis that include surrogates (cholesterol), signs (angina), and sequelae (ischemia) of atherosclerosis. Direct quantification and characterization of atherosclerosis may encourage a precision heart care paradigm that improves diagnosis, risk stratification, therapeutic decision-making, and longitudinal disease tracking in a personalized fashion.

OBSERVATIONS

The American College of Cardiology Innovations in Prevention Working Group introduce the Atherosclerosis Treatment Algorithms that personalize medical interventions based upon atherosclerosis findings from coronary computed tomography angiography (CTA) and cardiovascular risk factors. Through integration of coronary CTA-based atherosclerosis evaluation, clinical practice guidelines, and contemporary randomized controlled trial evidence, the Atherosclerosis Treatment Algorithms leverage patient-specific atherosclerosis burden and progression as primary targets for therapeutic intervention. After defining stages of atherosclerosis severity by coronary CTA, Atherosclerosis Treatment Algorithms are described for worsening stages of atherosclerosis for patients with lipid disorders, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and tobacco use. The authors anticipate a rapid pace of research in the field, and conclude by providing perspectives on future needs that may improve efforts to optimize precision prevention of coronary artery disease. Importantly, the Atherosclerosis Treatment Algorithms are not endorsed by the American College of Cardiology, and should not be interpreted as a statement of American College of Cardiology policy.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

We describe a precision heart care approach that emphasizes atherosclerosis as the primary disease target for evaluation and treatment. To our knowledge, this is the first proposal to use coronary atherosclerosis burden and progression to personalize therapy selection and therapy changes, respectively.

DISCLOSURE

The American College of Cardiology Foundation has made an investment in Cleerly, Inc., makers of a software solution that utilizes coronary CT angiography findings to evaluate coronary artery disease.

New Diabetes Guidelines: Impact on Eligibility for Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors and Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists in Canada

OBJECTIVES

Recent diabetes guidelines call for prescribing sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) for end-organ indications (cardiovascular disease [CVD], heart failure and chronic kidney disease) and for primary prevention of CVD in adults with multiple risk factors. Our aim was to assess the effect of new guidelines on the prevalence of SGLT2i/GLP-1RA-eligible adults, and their current rates of SGLT2i/GLP-1RA use.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted of Canadian adults (age ≥18 years) with diabetes on June 30, 2020, using electronic medical record data from primary care practices in 5 provinces (Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland, Ontario and Québec). Indications were determined from comorbidities, lab values and cardiovascular risk factors.

RESULTS

End-organ indications were present in 34.1% of adults for SGLT2i and in 17.1% for GLP-1RA (CVD only). Rates of SGLT2i and GLP-1RA use were only 14.0% and 4.3%, respectively, in those with end-organ indications. The majority of these individuals had glycated hemoglobin ≤7.0%. The combination of end-organ and primary prevention indications increased eligibility for SGLT2i to 62.6%, and for GLP-1RA to 59.1%.

CONCLUSIONS

The implications of this sizeable reclassification of adults as SGLT2i/GLP-1RA indicated on health-care budgets and cost-effectiveness requires further study. In the meantime, targeted efforts are necessary to improve SGLT2i/GLP-1RA use in those with end-organ indications that have robust evidence of cardiovascular and kidney benefit from newer agents.

Glucose-lowering drug use, glycemic outcomes, and severe hypoglycemia: 18-Year trends in 0·9 million adults with Diabetes in Hong Kong (2002-2019)

Background

Improvements in glycemic outcomes have stalled since 2010 in several international surveys. We previously reported improvements in glycemic control in 2007-2014 in Hong Kong coinciding with primary care reforms, use of dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 inhibitors (DPP-4is) and metformin. The aim of this study was to estimate more recent trends in drug use and glycemic outcomes following introduction of newer classes of glucose-lowering drugs (GLDs).

Methods

Using population-based data from the Hong Kong Diabetes Surveillance Database, we explored age-specific trends in proportion of patients reaching glycemic targets and incidence rates of severe hypoglycemia (SH) in 963,612 adults with diabetes in 2002-2019. We further assessed patterns of GLDs utilisation by presence of atherosclerotic-cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), heart failure, and estimated-glomerular filtration rate (eGFR).

Findings

Following rapid decline in HbA1c from 7·7% to 7·2% in 2005-2014 (annual percentage change [APC]= -0·8, 95% CI:-1·0,-0·6), standardized mean HbA1c plateaued since 2014 (HbA1c 7·2% in 2019, APC=0·0, 95% CI:-0·2, 0·2). The incidence rates of SH declined from 3·4 to 0·7 events per 100-person years, but improvements levelled off since 2014. Use of metformin steadily increased (41·1 to 58·7%), sulfonylureas decreased (52·2 to 31·1%) while insulin remained static in 2002-2019. Adoption of DPP-4is slowed following initial rapid uptake in 2007-2011. DPP-4is remained the most widely prescribed newer GLD in all ages (14·3% in 2019). Use of glucagon-like-peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP1-RAs) and sodium glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) increased rapidly in 2015-2019 with 0·5% and 6% of users respectively in 2019.

Interpretation

Following rapid improvement in 2007-2014, glycemic control and SH rates had plateaued despite changing patterns of newer GLDs use in Hong Kong.

Funding

Dr. Aimin Yang was supported by a CUHK Impact Research Fellowship Scheme.

The "Early Treatment" Approach Reducing Cardiovascular Risk in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Consensus From an Expert Panel Using the Delphi Technique

INTRODUCTION

There is no consensus on the optimal therapeutic approach to adopt in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) to prevent cardiovascular disease (CVD). The study aimed to gather an expert consensus on the hypoglycemic treatment and CV risk management in patients with newly diagnosed T2DM through the Delphi methodology.

METHODS

To address this issue, a list of 30 statements concerning the definition of "early T2DM patient", early treatment, CV risk in T2DM, treat-to-benefit approach, and indications for treatment with glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors was developed. Using a two-round Delphi methodology, the survey was distributed to 80 Italian diabetes specialists who rated their level of agreement with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale. Consensus was predefined as more than 66% of the panel agreeing/disagreeing with any given statement.

RESULTS

A total of 27/30 statements achieved consensus. A patient was defined as "early" according to pathophysiological or clinical interpretation, and/or the timing of the diagnosis. There was agreement on the importance to reach the lowest possible HbA1c level, since diagnosis, also using combination therapy with hypoglycemic drugs with a proven CV benefit. There was a consensus that a treat-to-benefit approach involves the addition of a glucose-lowering agent with proven CV benefits to metformin since diagnosis. The use of GLP-1RAs and SGLT2 inhibitors was considered a key strategy in this approach and the benefits were recognized also for patients with T2DM without established CVD. GLP-1RAs should be used at an earlier stage than SGLT2 inhibitors to prevent CVD, especially in patients with evidence of subclinical atherosclerotic disease.

CONCLUSION

This Delphi consensus recognized the importance to adopt a tailored hypoglycemic treatment of patients with T2DM according to their CVD risk and the key role of glucose-lowering agents with proven CV efficacy, GLP-1RAs and SGLT2 inhibitors, in the context of an early treat-to-benefit approach.

Guideline recommendations and the positioning of newer drugs in type 2 diabetes care

Cardiovascular outcome trials in patients with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk have led to remarkable advances in our understanding of the effectiveness of GLP-1 receptor agonists and SGLT2 inhibitors to reduce cardiorenal events. In 2019, the American Diabetes Association (ADA), European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD), and European Society of Cardiology (ESC) published updated recommendations for the management of such patients. We are concerned that ongoing discussions focusing on the differences between the endocrinologists' consensus report from the ADA and EASD and cardiologists' guidelines from the ESC are contributing to clinical inertia, thereby effectively denying evidence-based treatments advocated by both groups to patients with type 2 diabetes and cardiorenal disease. A subset of members from the writing groups of the ADA-EASD consensus report and the ESC guidelines was convened to emphasise where commonalities exist and to propose an integrated framework that encompasses the views incorporated in management approaches proposed by the ESC and the ADA and EASD. Coordinated action is required to ensure that people with type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, heart failure, or chronic kidney disease are treated appropriately with an SGLT2 inhibitor or GLP-1 receptor agonist. In our opinion, this course should be initiated independent of background therapy, current glycaemic control, or individualised treatment goals.

Worldwide inertia to the use of cardiorenal protective glucose-lowering drugs (SGLT2i and GLP-1 RA) in high-risk patients with type 2 diabetes

The disclosure of proven cardiorenal benefits with certain antidiabetic agents was supposed to herald a new era in the management of type 2 diabetes (T2D), especially for the many patients with T2D who are at high risk for cardiovascular and renal events. However, as the evidence in favour of various sodium-glucose transporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT2i) and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) accumulates, prescriptions of these agents continue to stagnate, even among eligible, at-risk patients. By contrast, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP-4i) DPP-4i remain more widely used than SGLT2i and GLP-1 RA in these patients, despite a similar cost to SGLT2i and a large body of evidence showing no clear benefit on cardiorenal outcomes. We are a group of diabetologists united by a shared concern that clinical inertia is preventing these patients from receiving life-saving treatments, as well as placing them at greater risk of hospitalisation for heart failure and progression of renal disease. We propose a manifesto for change, in order to increase uptake of SGLT2i and GLP-1 RA in appropriate patients as a matter of urgency, especially those who could be readily switched from an agent without proven cardiorenal benefit. Central to our manifesto is a shift from linear treatment algorithms based on HbA1c target setting to parallel, independent considerations of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, heart failure and renal risks, in accordance with newly updated guidelines. Finally, we call upon all colleagues to play their part in implementing our manifesto at a local level, ensuring that patients do not pay a heavy price for continued clinical inertia in T2D.