Sex differences in depression in early adolescents

Co-occurrence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescent boys: I. Familial factors and general adjustment at Grade 6

Clinical studies indicate that depression and conduct disorder frequently co-occur in children. Research on the correlates of depression in children has frequently failed to control for this co-occurrence, and little is known about the family background and characteristics of children displaying both problem behaviors. An at-risk community sample of 203 early adolescent boys in the Oregon Youth Study was divided into the following groups: (a) those showing elevated conduct problems and depressed mood, (b) those showing elevated conduct problems only, (c) those showing elevated depressed mood only, and (d) those with neither problem. Multimethod, multiagent assessments were conducted at Grade 6. The four groups were compared using multivariate analyses of variance. Demographic variables, parental characteristics, family-management practices, and boys' adjustment show some deficits in all three risk groups, and the patterns of deficits vary between groups. As hypothesized, the boys with conduct problems and depressed mood show the poorest adjustment. Results are consistent with a failure model, which hypothesizes that boys with conduct problems are at risk for failing to develop competence in areas such as academic skill and peer relations. In addition, their noxious behavior leads to poor relationships with parents and peers. These problems result in failures and rejection, which make them vulnerable to depressed mood.

Linking parenting processes and self-regulation to psychological functioning and alcohol use during early adolescence

A longitudinal transactional model was tested linking parenting and youth self-regulation to youths' psychological functioning and alcohol-use behavior. Participants included one hundred twenty 12-year-olds, their mothers, and their fathers from whom three waves of data were collected at 1-year intervals. Teachers provided assessments of self-regulation, and parenting was assessed from multiple perspectives, including youth reports, parent reports, and observer ratings. Youths reported their psychological functioning and alcohol-use behavior. The data supported the model. Parenting and youth self-regulation were stable across time, and self-regulation was linked with changes in harsh-conflicted parenting from Wave 1 to Wave 2. Parenting at Wave 2 was associated with youth self-regulation. Youth self-regulation at Wave 2 mediated the paths from parenting practices at Wave 2 to youth psychological functioning and alcohol use at Wave 3.

Reversals of fortune? Sex differences in health in childhood and adolescence

This paper reviews findings on sex differences in health among children and adolescents, concentrating particularly on the ages 7-15 years. The overall picture is of a gradual emergence of excess morbidity in females over this life stage. In respect of overall levels of chronic illness, higher male rates in childhood are replaced by higher female rates which emerge in early-mid adolescence. This pattern is also seen in an examination of the rates of two common childhood conditions, asthma and migraine/headaches. An excess of psychological disturbance (largely neurotic disorders) among females emerges in early-mid adolescence, in comparison with younger ages where males predominate. Sex differences in the utilization of health services appear to mirror these patterns of excess morbidity. There is also evidence that with increasing age there is a strengthening in the sex patterning of illness behaviour. In contrast to the emphasis which has been given to explaining the emergence of a female excess in psychological disturbance and illness-related behaviours and attitudes during early adolescence, much less attention has been given to the understanding of the excess in physical complaints among females which also arises over this period. The paper suggests that this may be directly related to the relative lowering of their psychological well-being during early adolescence. Longitudinal studies are required in order to answer questions concerning age by sex interactions in respect of morbidity in childhood and adolescence.

Epidemiology of childhood depressive disorders: a critical review

The methodology of 14 recent epidemiological studies of childhood and adolescent depressive disorders was critically reviewed and findings summarized for prevalence, comorbidity, correlates, risk factors, and outcome. Shortcomings in sampling and considerable inconsistency in the measurement of depression in the studies made it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the prevalence and correlates of depression in young people. Nonetheless, it is likely that major depressive disorder is relatively uncommon in prepubertal children, increases in frequency in adolescents, and is significantly associated with such variables as family dysfunction and low self-esteem. Comorbidity of depression with other psychiatric disorders was also high in these nonpatient samples and it will be important in future work to assess the implications of this for the etiology, treatment, and prognosis of depressive disorders in children and adolescents.