Relationships between human-animal interactions and productivity of commercial dairy cows

Human animal relationships in Bos indicus cattle breeds addressed from a Five Domains welfare framework

The present review has two objectives, the first is to investigate the differences in temperament between Bos indicus and Bos taurus breeds and determining the effects on production due to positive treatment and to compare this with negative HAR, by using the Five Domain Model as framework. The second objective is to discuss potential strategies to achieve better HAR when working with Bos indicus cattle. Bos indicus are more reactive and temperamental than Bos taurus cattle. When human animal relationships (HAR) are evaluated, Bos indicus cattle may react with greater intensity. They may be more likely to develop a negative emotional state, especially in extensively raised Bos indicus cattle that are handled only a few times each year. Bos indicus cattle can have positive emotional states when they have frequent positive interactions with people. Interactions with people, both positive and negative, would be in the fourth Domain of the Five Domains model. Cattle that are more reactive during handling may also have lower weight gain, even when they have abundant feed. This would be in the first Domain of Nutrition. When cattle are handled in races and corrals, injuries may be more likely to occur. Injuries and bruises would be in the third Domain of Health. Injuries could be caused by either poor handling practices by people or poor handling facilities. Yelling or electric prod use would be examples of poor HAR. Second Environmental Domain issues may be broken facilities or slick, slippery floors that are associated with falls.

Producer perceptions of dairy calf management, behavior, and welfare

Approaches for raising calves vary across commercial dairy farms and relate to behavioral opportunities and animal welfare. The objectives of this study were to evaluate how US dairy producers and calf managers perceive (1) the welfare implications of varying management practices (including social housing and milk allowance) and behaviors in dairy calves, and (2) aspects of the human-animal relationship in calf rearing and relationships with on-farm management and personal calf handling habits. Survey questions were primarily quantitative (e.g., Likert scales) and addressed how common calf management practices and observed calf behaviors were related to aspects of welfare, including calf health and comfort. We additionally posed questions addressing respondent habits, management protocols, and perceptions related to human-animal interaction. Responses from 93 dairy producers and calf managers were collected via digital surveys. Social housing was viewed as being generally positive for both calf comfort and health, although this view was stronger with respect to calf comfort. Respondents from farms using social housing (56%) had more positive perceptions of social housing, viewed social play as being associated with better calf comfort and health, and considered access to other calves and "freedom to express natural behavior" as being more important for calves, compared with respondents from farms not providing social housing. Providing greater milk allowances (>7.6 L/d) was viewed as being good for both calf comfort and health, although respondents from farms providing these milk allowances (59%) had more positive perceptions than those who provided lesser allowances. Abnormal oral behaviors were viewed as being associated with both poor calf comfort and health. The welfare importance of various resources which may reduce abnormal oral behaviors (including hay and brushes) was perceived more ambiguously, although respondents from farms providing these resources, compared with those who do not, generally viewed them as more preferred by calves. We observed a positive relationship between how respondents perceived the human-animal bond (i.e., that calves enjoy contact with humans) and stated personal behavior related to calf contact (frequency of contacting calves to scratch or pet them). Respondent demographics were not related to perceptions of the human-animal relationship, but respondents identifying as female described more frequent positive calf interactions. Described aspects of human-animal interactions were not related to implementation of social housing on-farm. Job satisfaction was positively related to perception of the human-animal relationship. Overall, these results suggest that most calf management personnel place a high value on calf welfare, although farms implementing social housing appear to place a greater value on subjective calf well-being, and individual perceptions of animal welfare may depend on practical experience.

Management of dairy heifers: Can operant conditioning be an effective and feasible tool to decrease stress and ease animals' close contact and handling?

Besides health monitoring, a regular check of dairy heifers' growth rate is desirable, but it is rarely done because procedures that require restraint and handling can be associated with substantial stress for both animals and farmers. Inexperienced heifers, especially if they are highly responsive to humans, may find restraint and handling potentially aversive. This study investigated whether training heifers of different age and responsiveness toward humans (RTH), through operant conditioning, could reduce stress in animals, ease close contact and handling, and be feasible in terms of farmers' effort. We assessed 60 Holstein heifers of 2 age classes (young, n = 29, 291 ± 39 d; old, n = 31, 346 ± 62 d) according to the avoidance distance test and classified them as confident (n = 20), neutral (n = 21), or nonconfident (n = 19). Half of the heifers of each age and RTH class were trained (n = 29), whereas the other half was not (n = 31). The trained heifers were subjected to target training for 8 sessions and positively reinforced with feed to allow being touched on the muzzle, rump, and perineum. If a heifer refused positive reinforcement, the trainer stepped back as negative reinforcement. In the last week of the experiment, the effect of training on the reaction to handling was assessed in all heifers. We measured heart rate, root mean square of successive interbeat interval differences (RMSSD), and fecal cortisol metabolites (FCMet). The presence of behavioral distress signs was recorded as well. The avoidance distance test was performed a second time 24 h after the measuring session. All of the trained heifers, regardless of RTH class, successfully accomplished the target training task in 6 sessions, each spending on average 25.3 s per session. All of the trained heifers allowed touches on the rump and perineum at the end of the fourth session. Training nonconfident heifers required more time compared with the others. Trained heifers showed higher RMSSD than nontrained heifers (14.2 vs. 16.9 ms, respectively), indicating a lower vagal tone, and thus, a slightly lower stress level than nontrained heifers. Training did not lead to differences in HR, FCMet, or presence of stress behavioral signs. Nonconfident heifers had the highest mean baseline FCMet values compared with neutral and confident heifers (38.4 vs. 30.3 vs. 29.1 ng/g, respectively). Nonconfident heifers also showed the lowest value of FCMet 12 h after the measuring session (36.7 vs. 44.6 vs. 49.7 ng/g), likely due to a decreased responsiveness of the adrenal gland to a stressor. The average avoidance distance decreased between the beginning and the end of the experiment, especially for neutral and nonconfident heifers, regardless of whether they were trained or not. These results show how using operant conditioning on some heifers not only decreased their vagal tone, but also reduced the responsiveness to humans of all the animals, trained and not trained; in the latter case, this reduction was through nonassociative learning, such as habituation.

Genetic parameters and correlations for behavioural response traits towards humans in South African Black ostriches

1. The aim of this study was to estimate heritability and genetic correlations, first among behavioural responses of juvenile South African Black ostriches towards humans and secondly with slaughter weight and skin traits.2. Behavioural traits, such as willingness of the birds to approach humans, keeping a distance from the human observer and allowing touch interactions by a human were recorded (n = 1012 birds). In addition, slaughter weight, skin size, scores for nodule size, nodule shape and the presence of hair follicles were recorded.3. Single- and multi-trait animal model analyses performed on the data using ASReml4 revealed high heritability estimates of 0.44 for allowing touch interactions and 0.48 for both willingness to approach and keeping a distance from the human observer. In addition, significant genetic correlations among behavioural response traits were estimated, ranging from -0.99 between keeping a distance and willingness to approach the human observer, to 0.87 between allowing touch interactions and willingness to approach the human observer.4. In contrast, genetic correlations of behavioural response traits with most slaughter and skin traits were low, variable, and not significant. The exception was hair follicle score, which appeared to be unfavourably correlated with key behavioural traits.5. This study suggested that the temperament of ostriches could be improved by selection of birds that demonstrate willingness to associate with humans without compromising slaughter weight or skin traits.

Factors influencing pregnancy per artificial insemination (AI) and embryonic mortality in Nelore females subjected to timed-AI in Brazil

A greater understanding of factors influencing fertility is essential to improve pregnancy rates and reduce the occurrence of embryonic mortality in beef herds. The objective of the current study was to evaluate retrospective data of pregnancy per artificial insemination (P/AI) and pregnancy loss in Nelore females subjected to timed-AI (TAI) in Brazil. Data from 40,104 TAI collected from six breeding seasons (2016-2022) were analyzed, and the effects of animal category (e.g., classification based on age and parity), farm, month of parturition, sire, sire breed (Nelore vs Angus), estrus expression at TAI, animal temperament, and body condition scores (BCS) were evaluated. P/AI and pregnancy loss were affected (P < 0.001) by animal category. There was also an effect of farm (P = 0.0013) on P/AI and pregnancy loss (P = 0.001), as P/AI ranged from 49.28% and 55.58% and pregnancy loss from 3.37% to 6.89% across the herds evaluated. Month of parturition also affected (P < 0.001) P/AI and was higher for cows that became pregnant at the beginning of the previous breeding season. Calmer animals, presenting lower velocity scores while exiting the chute following TAI, achieved higher P/AI (P < 0.001). Lower BCS at TAI was associated (P < 0.001) with increased pregnancy loss, and BCS gain following AI was associated (P < 0.001) with reduced rates of embryonic mortality. There was a major effect (P < 0.001) of sire on P/AI and pregnancy loss, as P/AI ranged from 11% to 79%, and embryonic mortality from 0% to 40% for the bulls used in the study, highlighting the importance of the sire fertility on overall pregnancy success. Results from the current study reinforce the idea that animal age and parity at the beginning of the breeding season, BCS at the onset of estrous synchronization, BCS gain following AI, estrus expression at TAI, sire, and month of parturition are important factors influencing P/AI and rates of embryonic mortality in beef herds.

Developing a model to promote caretaker confidence and communication in treatment decisions for dairy cattle through case studies

The significant role of dairy caretakers in maintaining animal welfare on dairy farms emphasizes the necessity of appropriate training and education to ensure the implementation of practices that promote good animal welfare. This study explored the potential of case-based learning as a novel approach to training for dairy caretakers by investigating dairy caretakers' perspectives on case study discussions. Additionally, this study sought to understand thoughts and feelings of caretakers during case study discussions to help identify information that caretakers use to evaluate cases and make decisions. Two case studies were developed and presented to participants, and thematic analysis of case study discussion transcripts was performed. Pre- and post-training questionnaires for 21 caretakers (n = 21) were summarized. The study found that caretaker reactions to case studies were generally positive. Thematic analysis revealed that caretakers use previous knowledge to make treatment decisions for cattle, and valued discussion with coworkers. The results of this study suggest the need for further investigation into the use of case studies and other activities that provide opportunities for critical thinking as training opportunities on dairy farms.

Training of transport drivers improves their handling of pigs during loading for transport to slaughter

Pig transport drivers' (TDs') handling actions are of great importance as these drivers handle a large number of finishing pigs during stressful situations. Poor handling techniques can have negative consequences for working conditions, pig welfare and meat quality. We studied the effects of a training intervention on Swedish TDs' attitudes towards pigs and their handling actions during loading for transport to slaughter. Twenty TDs working with commercial pig transportation in Sweden were recruited and completed an attitude questionnaire. Ten of them were observed during one loading of pigs before training, and one or two loadings after training (49-265 pigs per loading), and eight of them completed the attitude questionnaire again 50-160 days after training. The cognitive-behavioural training program ProHand Pigs® was adapted and delivered to the ten TDs during a group session, followed by individual meetings. TDs' handling actions were video recorded and summarised as binary variables per 5-s interval. Factor analysis, principal component analysis and paired t-test were conducted to investigate the effects of the training intervention on TDs' attitudes, and mixed-effects logistic models were used to examine effects on negative and positive handling actions. Training tended to decrease TDs' beliefs that it is important to move pigs quickly (P = 0.095). Training decreased the odds of a 'moderately to strongly negative' action by 55% (P = 0.0013) and increased the odds of a 'positive' action by 97% (P < 0.0001). This study provides valuable insights into the possibilities to improve TDs' handling actions, and implications for pig welfare during slaughter transport. The study supports previous findings that the attitudes and behaviour of handlers can be improved by cognitive-behavioural training. While our previous research has shown reciprocal relationships between TDs' actions and pig behaviour, further research on TDs' attitudes towards handling that underlie the nature of their behaviour when handling pigs is necessary to fine-tune the cognitive-behavioural training program applied in the present study.

Exploring farmer and advisor lameness management behaviors using the COM-B model of behavior change

Introduction

This paper applies the COM-B framework to farmer and farm advisor understandings and responses to lameness in sheep, beef, and dairy systems. It reflects on how farmers' and advisors' capability, opportunity, and motivation (COM-B) influence lameness management practices in these farming systems, and considers the interaction between these three factors, and stakeholders' behavior.

Methods

Interviews with 29 farmers and 21 farm advisors in the north of England were conducted. Thematic analysis was undertaken with results categorized in relation to the COM-B framework focusing on barriers and enablers of lameness management. Use of the COM-B model provides a useful means of understanding the underlying behavioral mechanisms that contribute toward the persistence of lameness. This includes the complexities and interactions which hamper implementation of lameness management best practice.

Results and discussion

The findings highlight three key areas to address with interventions to improve lameness management on farm: (1) removing physical and social barriers for lameness management; (2) improving psychological capability and motivation for lameness management; and (3) facilitating relationships and developing communication between farmers and advisors. In particular, the value of exploring both farmer and advisor perspectives on behavior in the animal health context is demonstrated. Future interventions should look to target these three areas to overcome barriers and focus on factors that enable positive lameness practices to occur.

Perceptions of dairy cow-handling situations: A comparison of public and industry samples

Inappropriate cattle handling poses a reputational threat to the dairy industry. To enhance social sustainability, handling practices must resonate with societal values about animal care. However, it has yet to be determined to what extent industry and public stakeholders differ in their perception of common cattle handling situations. We administered an online survey to samples of dairy industry (IND) and public (PUB) stakeholders to examine how they perceive a variety of cow-handling scenarios ranging from positive to negative in terms of effects on animal welfare. Participants were presented with 12 brief videos depicting a range of realistic cow-handling situations and responded to measures designed to assess their attitudes and beliefs about each scenario, their perception of the emotional response of the cows depicted in each scenario, as well as their own personal emotional response. Preexisting beliefs about cow treatment on US dairy farms and demographic data, including self-reported dairy consumption, were also collected and analyzed. Before viewing the videos, 52.9% of PUB (vs. 79.0% of IND) believed cows were treated well while 27.2% (vs. 9.0% of IND) believed cows were treated badly. Within IND, believing cows were treated badly was more common among nonwhites, those with greater formal education, more liberal politics, or from urban or suburban environments. In PUB, female and younger participants were more likely to believe cows were treated badly before viewing the videos. In both samples, participants with more positive preexisting beliefs about dairy cow treatment in the US reported consuming dairy products more frequently. In both PUB and IND, scenarios which were rated more positively for attitudes or for the cows' or respondents' emotional experiences were also perceived as more common. Within a given cow-handling scenario, qualitative attitudes (i.e., a positive, negative, or neutral valence) did not differ between the samples. In both samples, at the participant level, overall attitudes toward cow-handling scenarios were highly correlated with both their personal emotional response to the scenario and their perception of the cows' emotional responses. Although the participants' overall personal emotional responses did not differ between the samples, IND rated cows as experiencing more negative emotions overall. The consensus between industry and public stakeholders around dairy cow-handling practices observed in this study could provide a common starting point for addressing other, more contentious animal welfare issues.

Genomic Selection for Dairy Cattle Behaviour Considering Novel Traits in a Changing Technical Production Environment

Cow behaviour is a major factor influencing dairy herd profitability and is an indicator of animal welfare and disease. Behaviour is a complex network of behavioural patterns in response to environmental and social stimuli and human handling. Advances in agricultural technology have led to changes in dairy cow husbandry systems worldwide. Increasing herd sizes, less time availability to take care of the animals and modern technology such as automatic milking systems (AMSs) imply limited human-cow interactions. On the other hand, cow behaviour responses to the technical environment (cow-AMS interactions) simultaneously improve production efficiency and welfare and contribute to simplified "cow handling" and reduced labour time. Automatic milking systems generate objective behaviour traits linked to workability, milkability and health, which can be implemented into genomic selection tools. However, there is insufficient understanding of the genetic mechanisms influencing cow learning and social behaviour, in turn affecting herd management, productivity and welfare. Moreover, physiological and molecular biomarkers such as heart rate, neurotransmitters and hormones might be useful indicators and predictors of cow behaviour. This review gives an overview of published behaviour studies in dairy cows in the context of genetics and genomics and discusses possibilities for breeding approaches to achieve desired behaviour in a technical production environment.

Patterns of milking unit kick-off as a proxy for habituation to milking in primiparous cows

The onset of lactation and the subsequent habituation to the milking routine is a stressful period, particularly for primiparous (PRI) cows. The objective of this study was to describe the dynamics of milking unit kick-off (KO) behavior in PRI cows during the first 3 mo of lactation, considering multiparous (MUL) cows as a reference for comparison. In addition, the potential associations between KO and milk yield and mastitis presentation were investigated. A total of 869 cows (PRI = 199; MUL = 670) on a dairy farm in northern CO were included in the analysis. Cows calving between August and November 2020 were enrolled from 3 DIM until 90 DIM. Participants were milked 3×/day in a 60-unit rotary parlor and data from each milking session were downloaded from parlor management software. Milking unit kick-off was used as a proxy for habituation to the milking procedure. Kick-off events were reported by the milking system and defined as an abrupt interruption in the milk flow during the milking process. Cow KO events were recorded for each milking session. Subsequently, occurrence of KO was analyzed by grouping the 3 consecutive milking sessions in each day and categorized as yes or no, indicating whether or not an individual kicked at least once in a given day. Data were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA and logistic regression, including parity category, calving season, occurrence of dystocia, and their potential interactions in the models. Least squares means for daily proportions of KO were calculated considering the number of cows with KO events per day in the PRI and MUL categories. Subsequently, odds ratios for the occurrence of KO in PRI versus MUL were calculated at multiple periods of time. When KO was analyzed by DIM, proportions of KO were greater in PRI than in MUL during the whole monitoring period. In PRI, proportions of KO increased from 0.10/d to 0.20/d between 3 DIM and 15 DIM, to start decreasing around 30 DIM and remaining above MUL up to 90 DIM. On the contrary, in MUL cows, proportions of KO remained close to 0.05/d during the 90-d period. Overall, the odds of KO were greater for PRI versus MUL cows (odds ratio [95% confidence interval] = 2.07 [1.58-2.73]). No differences in milk yield were established among KO categories, while the percentage of cows affected with mastitis was greater in cows grouped in the quartile with more frequent KO events. We concluded that the relationship between days in milk and the proportion of PRI cows displaying KO was not linear, but rather KO increased during the first 2 wk postpartum before decreasing after the first month of lactation. First-parity cows had greater levels of KO than MUL cows, which is most likely associated with the process of habituation to milking during their first lactation.

Changes in dairy cows' behaviour, health, and production after transition from tied to loose housing

BACKGROUND

Transition of dairy cows from a tied to a loose housing system may affect their behaviour, health and production. Such housing system changes have become more frequent in Estonia but knowledge is lacking on how cows adapt to a new system. The aim of this study was to evaluate how cows' behaviour, milk production and composition, and different aspects of their health changed after transition from tied to loose housing.

RESULTS

A herd of 400 dairy cows was moved to a new system on the same farm, so that effects of transport were not confounding factors. Behavioural observations were made for approximately 4 months following transition. Milk production data were recorded from 12 months before to 12 months after transition. Examination for skin alterations and cleanliness, as well as body condition scoring were carried out before transition, and thereafter monthly throughout the study. Significant effects on behaviour were observed just after the transition, with increases in the behaviour indicative of poor welfare, such as vocalisation and aggression, and decreases in those indicative of a good state of welfare, such as ruminating, resting and grooming. These effects were of short duration, with most returning to a steady state after the first week. Milk production declined already before the transition but fell significantly after transition, and this fall lasted longer in older cows. Likewise, somatic cell counts were higher in all cows following transition, but older cows were affected significantly more than cows in the first lactation. The frequency of lameness and skin alterations increased on average after transition. Body condition scores fell after transition but recovered by the second month. Therefore, there were adverse effects on the behaviour, health and production of the dairy cows transferred, although, apart from older cows, of short duration.

CONCLUSION

The transition from tied to loose housing first had negative impacts on the welfare of the cows, although by the tenth day the behavioural indicators had returned to normal values. Impacts were more severe in higher parity cows, indicating that the change was more of a challenge for older cows. The findings of this study suggest that animals' behaviour and health should be more carefully observed within about 2 weeks after transition. It is quite likely that more and more farmers in Estonia and elsewhere will recognize the benefits of keeping their dairy cattle in loose housing, aimed at improving animal welfare and the value of the production chain.

Human-Animal Interactions in Dairy Goats

It is widely assumed that the quality of human-animal interactions may have a strong impact on animals' living conditions and is fundamental to improving farm animal welfare. This work aims to evaluate the effectiveness of methods for assessing and monitoring the welfare of lactating goats. In particular, attention was paid to the methods regarding the assessment of the human-animal relationship. The experimental protocol included three tests and observations in the milking parlour, namely: avoidance distance in the pen, avoidance distance at the manger, approach test within 2 min and behavioural observations of stockmen and animals during milking. Fourteen dairy goat farms located in the province of Potenza (Southern Italy) with flocks ranging in size from 67 to 450 lactating goats were used. All farms raised the Rossa Mediterranean goat breed. The percentage of goats that permitted themselves to be touched at the manger (mean ± SD: 12.36 ± 9.50) was higher than that found in the pen (9.67 ± 11.86) and within 2 min inside the pen (8.19 ± 13.78). The avoidance distance at the manger (0.63 ± 0.28 m) was shorter than that recorded in the pen (1.19 ± 0.58 m). Avoidance distance at the manger was positively correlated with that in the pen (Spearman correlation test (r_s) = 0.607; p < 0.01), as was the percentage of goats touched at the manger and in the pen (r_s = 0.647; p < 0.01). Approximately 60% of the stockman interactions observed during milking were neutral, while positive and negative interactions had similar values to each other, approximately 20%. The number of neutral stockman interactions was positively correlated with the percentage of goats moving when approached at a distance >1 m (r_s = 0.799; p < 0.001) and was negatively correlated with the animals touched at the manger (r_s = -0.607; p < 0.05), in the pen (r_s = -0.613; p < 0.05) and within 2 min (r_s = -0.669; p < 0.01). As regards the degree of association between the behaviour of the milker and the animals during the milking routine, the percentage of neutral interactions tended to be positively correlated only with the number of kicks performed by the animals (r_s = 0.476; p < 0.10). It is concluded that avoidance distance at the manger and in the pen, as for other farm animals, are valid tests to evaluate the human-animal relationship in goats. In addition, avoidance distance at the manger may reliably replace the test performed in the pen.

A Quantitative Assessment of Trainers-Dolphins' Interactions in the Absence of Food Reward

All the studies that have considered the motivation of the dolphins to interact with their trainers as a possible welfare indicator have been carried out in facilities where the trainer-dolphin interactions (TDIs) sessions were reinforced with food. Therefore, in these specific circumstances, it was difficult to separate the motivation of the dolphins interacting with the trainers from the food drive. The current study aims to assess the interaction between the trainers and the dolphins in the absence of food rewards. The research was carried out at The Dolphin Reef (Eilat, Israel), a facility where the interaction between the trainers and 14 bottlenose dolphins of different sex and age classes did not involve food rewards. A total of 531 TDIs were recorded, with dolphins participating in 94.5% of the sessions and an average of three dolphins per session. The dolphins participated in a higher number and more frequently in the TDIs when toys were provided by the trainers. Diel and seasonal differences were also observed, with the dolphins participating more during the morning sessions and the neutral season. The latency of response of the dolphins to the presence of the trainers on the platform or in the water, whether or not advertised by the trainers' signal ("call" or "no-call"), was very short (usually less than 1 min), and the dolphins often anticipated the beginning of the sessions by arriving at the trainers' location before or upon the caretakers' arrival (96% of the time). Individual differences in the participation in the TDIs were also recorded, which might be linked to both the dolphin's health/welfare status or their personality. The current study shows that the separation of the TDIs from the food reward allows for a better understanding of the willingness of dolphins under human care to interact with their trainers. In addition, the results presented in this paper show that such TDIs are an important part of these dolphins' lives, which suggests that these interactions might be an additional tool to improve the animals' social environment and monitor their welfare.

Canadian dairy farmer views about animal welfare

Concerns regarding the welfare of farm animals continue to grow. Traditionally, research efforts have largely focused on refining existing management practices to improve welfare. However, the incorporation of views from those directly involved in animal care is equally, if not more, important. This study investigated the perspectives of Canadian dairy farmers on animal welfare. We conducted 16 interviews with a total of 22 participants from four provinces across Canada. Recorded audio files and field notes were transcribed, anonymised, and coded using deductive and inductive thematic analysis. The interview data revealed two major themes: (1) animal dimension of animal welfare, including views related to biological functioning, naturalness and affective states; and (2) dairy farmer identity, including, the voice of the 'city', what it means to be a good 'cow-man', and the nature of human-animal relationships. Dairy farmers emphasised biological functioning, but they made numerous references to the emotional and natural living aspects of their animals' lives. Our work also provides evidence that farmers believed it was their duty to care for their animals beyond simply milking cows and making a profit. In terms of the larger debate, this study identified potential shared values with members of the public: opportunities for natural living and agency, attentiveness to individual animals, and the value of life over death. Finally, the emotional relationship that farmers developed with their animals highlights the values dairy farmers have for their animals beyond simply utilitarian function. Overall, these shared values could contribute to constructive dialogue.

Effects of dairy cow temperament on milk yield: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The temperament of dairy cows interferes in milk yield and quality, but there is a lack of consensus throughout the literature. Thus, systematic review (SR) and meta-analysis (MA) methodologies were used to assess the effects of dairy cow temperament on milk yield. Our literature search included four electronic databases (CABI Abstracts, Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus) and bibliographies of the publications included on MA. As inclusion criteria, we considered publications about the temperament of lactating cows and its effect on daily milk yield and total milk yield (whole lactation). A random effect-MA was carried out separately for daily milk yield and total milk yield related to each class of cows' temperament, 'low' (low reactivity, calm animals), 'intermediate' (intermediate reactivity), and 'high' (high reactivity, reactive animals). A total of eight publications reporting 75 trials were included in the analyses for daily milk yield, and three publications reporting nine trials for total milk yield. For daily and total milk yield the heterogeneity between publications was high (I2 = 99.9%). Cows of European breeds with intermediate temperament produced less milk daily than the calm (P = 0.020) and reactive ones (P < 0.001). In the case of primiparous cows, those with intermediate temperament produced less milk daily (P < 0.001) than the reactive ones, while for multiparous, the intermediate produced less than calm (P = 0.032) and reactive cows (P < 0.001). Regarding the stage of lactation, cows evaluated throughout lactation with a calm temperament tended (P = 0.081) to produce more milk than the intermediate ones, but less than the reactive ones (P < 0.001). For total milk yield, reactive cows tended to produce more than the calm (P = 0.082) and intermediate (P = 0.001) ones. Among European and primiparous cows, reactive cows produced more than the intermediate (P = 0.001). According to our results, we cannot confirm what we expected, that calmer cows would be the most productive for both daily and total yield.

The relationships between attitudes, personal characteristics and behaviour of stockpeople on dairy goat farms

The aim of this study was to investigate the human-animal relationship on dairy goat farms, in particular associations between stockpeople's attitudes towards goats ( Capra hircus) and actual behaviour when handling goats and making decisions. Data were collected on 45 Austrian and German dairy goat farms. Attitude questionnaires of 119 stockpeople (58 female, 61 male) were analysed and 14 attitude components were extracted by five Principal Component Analyses (PCA) regarding general attitudes about goats and human-animal relationship, behavioural attitudes about specific human-goat interactions and interactions during milking, and affective attitudes. To investigate associations between stockpeople's attitudes and their subsequent behaviour, we calculated linear and logistic regression analysis on their behaviour during milking (n = 53 milkers) and on management decisions (n = 45 farms). Several attitude components were predictors of behaviour during milking. The attitude ' Needs of goats ' was included in all models: the higher stockpeople scored on ' Needs of goats ', the more positive interactions they showed and the less likely they were to use negative interactions. Gender influenced five attitude components: females showing greater agreement than males on positive general and affective attitudes, eg ' Needs of goats .' Regarding management, the more strongly decision-makers disagreed on using negative interactions during milking, the better was their farm's housing and management. To conclude, these results highlight the importance of the stockpeople's attitudes, not only for the interactions with their animals, but also for their decisions related to management and housing. Our results indicate opportunities for improvement of animal welfare by training specifically targeting stockpeople's attitudes.

Moving toward Fear-Free Husbandry and Veterinary Care for Horses

Husbandry and veterinary procedures have the potential to generate fear and stress in animals. In horses, the associated responses can pose a significant safety risk to the human personnel involved in the procedure, as well as to the animal itself. Traditionally, physical restraint, punishment, and/or threat of an aversive, have been the most common strategies used to achieve compliance from the horse. However, from a welfare perspective, this is less than ideal. This approach also has the potential for creating a more dangerous response from the horse in future similar situations. When caring for companion animals, and captive animals within zoological facilities, there has been a steady transition away from this approach, and toward strategies aimed at reducing fear and stress during veterinary visits and when undertaking routine husbandry procedures. This review discusses the current approaches to horse care and training, the strategies being used in other animal sectors, and potential strategies for improving human safety, as well as the horse's experience, during husbandry and veterinary procedures.

A “Good Life” for Dairy Cattle: Developing and Piloting a Framework for Assessing Positive Welfare Opportunities Based on Scientific Evidence and Farmer Expertise

Simple Summary

There is increasing appetite to understand how we can provide quality of life to farm animals. A framework to evaluate positive welfare opportunities for dairy cattle was developed using a participatory approach where farmer’s recommendations were integrated into a scientific framework and piloted on farm by vets. When provided with the opportunity to collaborate, farmers and scientists broadly agree on what constitutes “a good life” for dairy cattle and worked together to develop an assessment framework. Farmers did not agree equally on the value of each positive welfare opportunity. However, farmers supported positive welfare assessment as a means of recognition and reward for higher animal welfare, within existing farm assurance schemes, and to justify national and global marketing claims of higher animal welfare.

Abstract

On-farm welfare assessment tends to focus on minimising negative welfare, but providing positive welfare is important in order to give animals a good life. This study developed a positive welfare framework for dairy cows based on the existing scientific literature which has focused on developing positive welfare indicators, and trialled a participatory approach with farmers; refining the framework based on their recommendations, followed by a vet pilot phase on farm. The results revealed that farmers and scientists agree on what constitutes “a good life” for dairy cattle. Farmers value positive welfare because they value their cows’ quality of life, and want to be proud of their work, improve their own wellbeing as well as receive business benefits. For each good life resource, the proportion of farmers going above and beyond legislation ranged from 27 to 84%. Furthermore, barriers to achieving positive welfare opportunities, including monetary and time costs, were not apparently insurmountable if implementation costs were remunerated (by the government). However, the intrinsic value in providing such opportunities also incentivises farmers. Overall, most farmers appeared to support positive welfare assessment, with the largest proportion (50%) supporting its use within existing farm assurance schemes, or to justify national and global marketing claims. Collaborating with farmers to co-create policy is crucial to showcase and quantify the UK’s high welfare standards, and to maximise engagement, relevance and uptake of animal welfare policy, to ensure continuous improvement and leadership in the quality of lives for farm animals.

Rearing goat kids away from their dams 1. A survey to understand rearing methods

Despite an estimated global goat population of over one billion, little is known about methods being used to feed milk to artificially reared kids (reared away from their dams) and how kids are weaned from these systems. Quantifying and characterising current methods utilised on farms will enable future targeted research to investigate best practice methods for milk feeding and weaning of artificially rearedkids.A recall-based survey that investigated on-farmkid-rearingpractices (focusing on the milk feeding and weaning stages) was distributed via social media, and regional goat organisations across multiple countries. A total of 242 responses from 16 countries were collected and geographically grouped. Responses that could not be grouped sufficiently were removed (nine responses from eight countries). A total of 233 responses from eight countries (United States of America (USA) 72; United Kingdom (UK) 71; Australia 33; Canada 23; New Zealand 20; European Union (EU) 14), were analysed. Most farms (217; 93%) bred their own kids. The most common milk feeding method was bottle feeding, used on 135 farms (57.9%), followed by ad libitum feeding used by 72 (30.9%). A relationship between number of kids reared and feeding system was identified, χ²(3, N = 233) = 89.605,P < 0.001, with farms rearing > 100 kids more likely to feed milk ad libitum. A total of 170 farms (72.9%) were weaned based on a target age and 85 (36.4%) on a target weight, 53 (22.7%) used both and 45 (19.3%) neither. Target weaning ages and weights varied across countries; the median age was 84 days (interquartile range (IQR) 56-84), and the median weight was 16 kg (IQR 15-18). A difference was found between milk feeding systems for weaning method (Χ²(2, N = 232) = 63.797,P≤0.001), with kids most likely to be abruptly weaned from ad libitum systems (or gradually weaned from bottle feeding). Abrupt weaning was used by 67 farms (28.8%), and gradual weaning was used by 165 (71.1%). Gradual weaning strategies included reducing milk quantity (150 farms; 93% of farms providing detail) and diluting milk (six farms; 4%). A total of 169 (72.5%) supplied enrichment that met the survey's definition; items to climb on/hide in were most common, provided by 157 farms (92.8%). Findings suggest differing practices in smaller-scalebottle-fedversuslarger-scalead libitummilksystems, likely reflecting differing system needs.This highlights a requirement for welfare-focused research in kids reared artificiallyin order to identify and communicatebest practices to ensure on-farm welfare is optimised within each system.

Human-Animal Interactions with Bos taurus Cattle and Their Impacts on On-Farm Safety: A Systematic Review

Cattle production necessitates potentially dangerous human-animal interactions. Cattle are physically strong, large animals that can inflict injuries on humans accidentally or through aggressive behaviour. This study provides a systematic review of literature relating to farm management practices (including humans involved, facilities, and the individual animal) associated with cattle temperament and human's on-farm safety. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) was used to frame the review. Population, Exposure, and Outcomes (PEO) components of the research question are defined as "Bovine" (population), "Handling" (exposure), and outcomes of "Behaviour", and "Safety". The review included 17 papers and identified six main themes: actions of humans; human demographics, attitude, and experience; facilities and the environment; the animal involved; under-reporting and poor records; and mitigation of dangerous interactions. Cattle-related incidents were found to be underreported, with contradictory advice to prevent injury. The introduction of standardised reporting and recording of incidents to clearly identify the behaviours and facilities which increase injuries could inform policy to reduce injuries. Global differences in management systems and animal types mean that it would be impractical to impose global methods of best practice to reduce the chance of injury. Thus, any recommendations should be regionally specific, easily accessible, and practicable.

Humans and Goats: Improving Knowledge for a Better Relationship

Simple Summary

A good relationship between humans (e.g., farmers, owners) and farm animals is vital for the well-being of both parties: on the one hand, people are satisfied with their work, which becomes less stressful and more profitable, and may receive social benefits in terms of education or animal-assisted therapy; on the other hand, animals are rewarded by the presence of humans and are not afraid of them. Goats have high cognitive and communicative abilities towards humans: recognising these abilities helps humans to work properly on the quality of this relationship that is built from the first hours of the goat kids’ life, thanks to frequent and positive contacts (e.g., stroking, talking in a calm voice). Improving the quality of this relationship is an investment in the future of livestock farming and meets public demands for ethical and sustainable production. This review outlines the characteristics and predisposing factors for the establishment of a good human–goat relationship and for its evaluation.

Abstract

There is consensus that the quality of the human–animal relationship (HAR) is relevant to guarantee appropriate levels of animal welfare. Given the impact that HAR may have on both goats and human beings, the aim of the present review is to elucidate: (1) how humans and goats communicate; (2) which are the factors affecting human–goat interactions; (3) how we can measure the quality of this relationship. The systematic review led to the selection of 58 relevant articles. Effective human–goat communication takes place by means of visual, tactile and auditory stimuli and, to a less extent, via olfactory and gustative stimuli. Goats have well-developed socio-cognitive abilities and rely on humans to get relevant information. A deep knowledge of goats’ communication means and socio-cognitive abilities may greatly help improving the human–goat relationship. Management practices (e.g., rearing methods, amount and quality of interactions), as well as genetic selection for suitable individual traits, may contribute to improving HAR. Several measures to assess the quality of HAR have been validated, including avoidance in the pen and at the feeding rack and latency to first contact. Finally, farmers’ attitudes and empathy with goats, as well as their motivation to work with animals, should be improved through appropriate training.

The Animal-Human Interface in Farm Animal Production: Animal Fear, Stress, Reproduction and Welfare

Simple Summary

For at least the last four decades, the focus of animal welfare research, quality assurance, and policy initiatives has been on measuring behavioural and physiological stress responses in animals. In the last decade, however, this focus of animal welfare research has shifted to the consequences of these behavioural and physiological stress responses rather than only the responses per se. Modern-day farming, even with the intensification and automation requires regular monitoring and interactions by stockpeople. Research conducted in both experimental and commercial settings has shown widespread effects of the human-animal interactions on behaviour, physiology, and reproductive performance in farm animals. In this paper, we review the implications of human-animal interactions on reproduction in farm animals.

Abstract

A negative human-animal relationship (HAR) from the perspective of the animal is a limiting factor affecting farm animal welfare, as well as farm animal productivity. Research in farm animals has elucidated sequential relationships between stockperson attitudes, stockperson behaviour, farm animal fear behaviour, farm animal stress physiology, and farm animal productivity. In situations where stockperson attitudes to and interactions with farm animals are sub-optimal, through animal fear and stress, both animal welfare and productivity, including reproductive performance, can be compromised. There is a growing body of evidence that farm animals often seek and enjoy interacting with humans, but our understanding of the effects of a positive HAR on stress resilience and productivity in farm animals is limited. In this review, we explore the pathways by which stress induced by human-animal interactions can negatively affect farm animal reproduction, in particular, via inhibitory effects on the secretion of gonadotrophins. We also review the current knowledge of the stockperson characteristics and the nature of stockperson interactions that affect fear and physiological stress in farm animals. The contents of this review provide an insight into the importance of the HAR on farm animal welfare and reproduction while highlighting the gap in knowledge regarding the effects of a positive HAR on farm animals.

Contribution of Precision Livestock Farming Systems to the Improvement of Welfare Status and Productivity of Dairy Animals

Although the effects of human–dairy cattle interaction have been extensively examined, data concerning small ruminants are scarce. The present review article aims at highlighting the effects of management practices on the productivity, physiology and behaviour of dairy animals. In general, aversive handling is associated with a milk yield reduction and welfare impairment. Precision livestock farming systems have therefore been applied and have rapidly changed the management process with the introduction of technological and computer innovations that contribute to the minimization of animal disturbances, the promotion of good practices and the maintenance of cattle’s welfare status and milk production and farms’ sustainability and competitiveness at high levels. However, although dairy farmers acknowledge the advantages deriving from the application of precision livestock farming advancements, a reluctance concerning their regular application to small ruminants is observed, due to economic and cultural constraints and poor technological infrastructures. As a result, targeted intervention training programmes are also necessary in order to improve the efficacy and efficiency of handling, especially of small ruminants.

Review: Management of livestock behavior to improve welfare and production

In animal production, producers face different problems inherent to production systems. Today society is increasingly concerned about more sustainable systems and animal welfare. Applied ethology can be a tool to solve some of these problems through these approaches. The purpose of this review is to show succinctly some sustainable behavioral technologies whose application favors animal welfare and productivity. The examples cover areas of behavioral problems associated with multiple births, where odor transfer can be used to substitute or add newborns to a foster mother; early weaning, where some alternatives for a gradual break may reduce the stress of separation; early experience on the development of food preferences, where behavioral problems like neophobia can be avoided; early detection of sick animals, where recognition of some specific behaviors could help early identification of diseases, even before the appearance of clinical signs; social isolation on ease of handling, where different techniques have proved their effectiveness modifying the temperament of the animals; design of facilities and management, where it is highlighted how when considering the behavior of the animals in the design and management, better results are obtained; social isolation, facilitation, and buffering, where the presence of other members of the group can modify the consumption and sexual behaviors of pen-mates, or even alleviate suffering; and human-animal interaction on productivity, where the relevance of a positive human-animal interaction is highlighted. After reviewing the scientific literature on the subject, we can conclude that several modern livestock management practices might induce stress in animals, affecting their welfare, health, and productive performance. Applied animal behavior could be a sustainable and effective option to understand and solve some of these problems, and in many cases does not even require a strong economic investment for producers.

Maternal deprivation affects goat kids' stress coping behaviour

Maternal deprivation early in life has been shown to disrupt neonates' development. Nevertheless, separating the young animals from their dams soon after birth remains a common practice in dairy farm husbandry. This study investigated the effects of different rearing conditions on goat kids' stress coping abilities. Twenty female kids were raised together with their dams ('dam-reared') in a herd composed of other lactating goats and kids, while twenty female kids were separated from their dams three days after birth and reared together with same-age peers ('artificially-reared') and visually separated from the lactating herd. All kids shared the same father and two thirds of the kids were twins allocated to each treatment. At one month of age, kids were individually submitted to a series of tests: a novel arena test, a novel goat test, and a novel object test. These tests happened consecutively in this order, and lasted 180 s each. The kids' behaviour was video-recorded and analysed post-hoc by an observer blind to treatments. Five weeks after weaning, the kids were also subjected to human-animal relationship tests. During the three behavioural tests, artificially-reared kids vocalized more (P < 0.001), reared more (P < 0.001), ran more (P = 0.002) and jumped more (P < 0.001) than dam-reared kids, but self-groomed less (P = 0.01) and urinated less (P = 0.05) than dam-reared kids. During the novel goat test and the novel object test, artificially-reared kids gazed less at the novel goat and the novel object (P = 0.02) and initiated contact more quickly (P = 0.05) with the novel goat and the novel object than dam-reared kids. The treatments however did not differ significantly in salivary cortisol response to the tests (P = 0.96). Artificially-reared kids showed significantly less avoidance of humans than dam-reared kids during the human-animal relationship tests after weaning (P < 0.001). The higher intensity of their behavioural reaction showed that artificially-reared kids react to stressful situations more actively than dam-reared kids. The difference between the three tests were only minor, suggesting a general change in the kids' response to stressful situations rather than a specific change in their social response tested with an unfamiliar adult. Hence, artificial rearing affects goat kids' behavioural response to challenges, probably maternal deprivation being the main factor.

Welfare Health and Productivity in Commercial Pig Herds

In recent years, there have been very dynamic changes in both pork production and pig breeding technology around the world. The general trend of increasing the efficiency of pig production, with reduced employment, requires optimisation and a comprehensive approach to herd management. One of the most important elements on the way to achieving this goal is to maintain animal welfare and health. The health of the pigs on the farm is also a key aspect in production economics. The need to maintain a high health status of pig herds by eliminating the frequency of different disease units and reducing the need for antimicrobial substances is part of a broadly understood high potential herd management strategy. Thanks to the use of sensors (cameras, microphones, accelerometers, or radio-frequency identification transponders), the images, sounds, movements, and vital signs of animals are combined through algorithms and analysed for non-invasive monitoring of animals, which allows for early detection of diseases, improves their welfare, and increases the productivity of breeding. Automated, innovative early warning systems based on continuous monitoring of specific physiological (e.g., body temperature) and behavioural parameters can provide an alternative to direct diagnosis and visual assessment by the veterinarian or the herd keeper.

The effect of daily calf stroking frequency during the postnatal period on the establishment of the human-calf relationship

OBJECTIVE

Stroking calves during the postnatal period could effectively improve humancalf relationships. The objective of this study is to examine how daily calf stroking frequency during the postnatal period affects the establishment of human-calf relationships.

METHODS

Six calves were stroked by a trainer for 6 minutes once daily for 5 days after birth (D1). Six calves were stroked by a trainer for 3 minutes twice daily for 5 days after birth (D2). A further four calves were stared at but not stroked as the control group. The overall stroking or staring duration was the same for all groups, at 6 min/d and 30 min over 5 days. The tests for reactions to the stationary trainer in an unfamiliar environment and avoidance distance measurements for an approaching trainer were conducted at 1 month and 3 months after the treatment.

RESULTS

Calves in both stroking groups approached significantly closer to the stationary trainer, vocalized less, and looked at the trainer shorter than the control group at 1 month. However, at 3 months, there was no significant difference between the D1 and the control group, whereas the D2 approached significantly closer to the trainer and vocalized less, and looked at the trainer for a shorter time than the control group. For the avoidance distance, the trainer could approach closer to both stroking groups than the control at 1 month, however, there was no difference among groups at 3 months.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested that the difference in the calf stroking procedure affected the established human-calf relationships, even though the total stroking duration was the same for all stroked calves. It is likely to be more effective to stroke more frequently than intensively when the aim is to establish better human-calf relationships within limited labor time.

The provision of toys to pigs can improve the human-animal relationship

It is now widely recognised that a positive human-animal relationship is beneficial not only for farm animals' welfare but also for productivity and the quality of products. A better understanding of animal emotions is an important goal in disciplines ranging from neuroscience to animal welfare science, but few reliable tools exist for measuring these emotions. In this study, whether the provision of toys to solicit play behaviour in pigs is associated with a change in the human-animal relationship and the emotional state of pigs was investigated. We involved a group of sixteen mini-pigs housed in an experimental setting and the use of a preliminary test called the 'strange person' test. After a Control and a Play session (with medium-sized dog toys, balls with ropes), the strange person test was performed. During the test, a person wearing a colourful overall, a hood, a mask, gloves and boots (unknown person with an odd appearance) entered the pen, where 2 mini-pigs were housed, for a 2-min video recording. The strange person test results after the Play and Control sessions were compared. The results showed that the latency to approach the person (duration in seconds) and the duration for which the pig was distant from the strange person (duration in seconds) were significantly lower after the Play session than after the Control session (Degrees of Freedom =30; Statistic of the F test =39.1; p < 0.0001 and Degrees of Freedom =15; Statistic of the F test =54.3; p < 0.0001, respectively). The duration of direct contact (duration in seconds) (Degrees of Freedom =15; Statistic of the F test =14.8; p = 0.002), the need to separate the pig from the strange person (frequency) (Degrees of Freedom =30; Statistic of the F test =9.3; p = 0.005) and the duration of tail movement (duration in seconds) (Degrees of Freedom =15; Statistic of the F test =12.6; p = 0.003) were all significantly higher after the Play sessions than after the Control sessions. Overall, the results suggest a change in the human-animal relationship after the Play sessions: the pigs seemed to be less fearful and more inclined to interact with the strange person, showing a more positive emotional state. This preliminary study suggests that the provision of toys, and more precisely, the opportunity to perform object play behaviour, and sometimes, spontaneously, social play behaviour, can improve the human-animal relationship. Additional research to explore this topic thoroughly may yield interesting results because a positive emotional state of the animals and a good human-animal relationship are essential to ensure good quality of life of farm animals.

Phenotypic Dairy Cattle Trait Expressions in Dependency of Social-Ecological Characteristics along Rural–Urban Gradients

The aim of the present study was to infer phenotypic trait expressions via mixed modeling considering both social and ecological continuous descriptors simultaneously. In this regard, we selected a challenging heterogeneous social-ecological environment, with focus on the rising megacity Bangalore, located in southern India. Dairy traits from 517 dairy cattle were recorded in 121 herds, equally distributed along a southern and a northern rural–urban gradient of Bangalore, distinguishing between urban, mixed, and rural areas. Repeated records from three visits per herd included production traits (daily milk yield in liter: MY), energy efficiency indicators (body condition score: BCS), cow wellbeing indicators (udder hygiene score: UddHS, upper leg hygiene score: ULHS, hock assessment score: HAS, rectal temperature in °C: RT), and health traits (locomotion score: LS, subclinical mastitis: SubMast). Associations between a continuous rural–urban gradient and phenotypic trait expressions were analyzed via mixed modeling, additionally considering “classic” environmental explanatory variables such as climatic conditions. MY and BCS were higher in urban than in rural areas, associated with reduced SubMast and improved hygiene scores for UddHS and ULHS. Scores for wellbeing indicators HAS and LS were unfavorable for cows in urban areas, indicating poor leg health conditions in that area. In rural areas, least-squares means for RT were quite large, probably due to the scarcity of shading and heat insulation of the barns. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study disentangling phenotypic trait expressions in the context of social-ecological heterogeneity, contributing to a deeper understanding of physiological mechanisms underlying genotype by environment interactions.

Fecal Cortisol Metabolites in Dairy Cows: A Cross-Sectional Exploration of Associations with Animal, Stockperson, and Farm Characteristics

Simple Summary

Dairy cows are exposed to various potentially stressful situations in the daily farm routine, which might considerably impair their welfare and performance. On 25 German organic dairy farms, we explored associations of cows’ physiological stress levels by means of cortisol metabolite concentrations in feces (1) with different potentially influencing farm factors including human–animal contact, (2) cows’ fear behaviors towards humans, and (3) milk production and udder health. Cortisol metabolite levels were decreased on farms that did not separate diseased cows, possibly reflecting less regrouping stress. Levels were also lower on farms with straw yards compared to raised cubicles, and on farms with generous compared to suboptimal lying space, underlining the importance of resting comfort for cattle. Increased human–animal contact was associated with decreased cortisol metabolite levels. However, against expectations, levels were higher, when the farm provided concentrate feed by hand and habituated young cows to milking, requiring specific experimental investigations to draw conclusions on causal associations.

Abstract

To date, little is known about influences on cows’ physiological stress levels on farms. The present study explored associations of fecal cortisol metabolite concentrations (FCM) with (1) farm factors including human–animal contact, (2) cows’ fear behaviors towards humans, and (3) milk production and udder health, involving 25 dairy farms and repeated fecal samples (n = 2625) from 674 focal cows. Farm factors via interviews and observations, avoidance distance (AD) and qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) during a human–animal interaction were recorded. Milk yield and somatic cell scores (SCS) were calculated from milk recordings. Levels of FCMs were in general relatively low. No associations with AD and milk yield could be detected. Correlations between FCMs and QBA and SCS were significant, but on a low level. Against expectations, FCMs were higher, when the farm provided concentrates by hand and habituated heifers to milking, in part possibly due to reversed cause–effect relations. Decreased FCM levels were found on farms that did not separate diseased cows, possibly due to the avoidance of social stress following changes in group structure. Additionally, straw yards compared to raised cubicles and generous compared to suboptimal lying space were associated with decreased levels, underlining the importance of comfort around resting. Moreover, FCMs were decreased with increased human contact time per cow. The different associations detected in this study provide a basis for further experimental investigations that moreover might provide insights into causal relationships.

Relation between stockperson behavior toward cows in a holding area and milk yields

To assess the effects of negative and positive behaviors on milk yields, this study examined the attitudes and behaviors of stockpersons toward their cows and milk yields at a farm where 15 workers milked 67 cows as rotating shift work. At a holding area when moving cows to the parlor, stockperson behaviors were observed at 34 milkings. Behaviors were classified as negative (NEG) or positive (POS): NEG were attempts to move cows using touching (NT), vocalization (NV), and gestures (NG); POS were communications without attempting to move cows, consisting of touch (PT) or vocalization (PV). Numbers of NV and NEG were negatively correlated with milk yields of first parity (p < .05). Average milk yields of first parity and all cows were higher when PT were observed (p < .001, p < .0001) and POS were observed (p < .001 and p < .0001). Numbers of PT were positively correlated with milk yields of first parity (p < .05). Average milk yields of second parity were higher when PV was observed (p < .01). Positive behaviors, especially touching, are related to higher herd milk yields. Negative behaviors such as negative vocalizations are related to lower yields of younger cows.

Application of the voluntary human approach test on commercial pig fattening farms: a meaningful tool?

BACKGROUND

A Voluntary Human Approach Test (VHAT) was performed in pig pens, and relationships between environmental conditions and welfare indicators were investigated. Five variables were measured in 1668 pens in 214 fattening pig herds in Germany: time until the first contact (touching) between a pig and the person in the pen (TUFC), time until the observer was surrounded by pigs within a radius of approximately two meters, percentage of pigs relative to group size [%] surrounding the observer after 1 min (PPSO), percentage of pigs relative to group size [%] that completely avoided contact with the observer during the entire test period, and how the pigs contacted the observer (Score 0 [no touching] - 3 [biting]). Furthermore, variables indicative of the pigs' environment (e.g., feeding system, ventilation system), management (e.g., number of usable drinkers, number of usable manipulatable materials), and welfare (e.g., tail lesions, ear lesions) were documented.

RESULTS

Pigs engaging in more forceful means of contact (nibbling, biting) approached the observer faster than those exhibiting more gentle types of contact (touching). A lower TUFC was associated with more manipulatable materials present, a higher number of drinkers, and with the control position of the caretaker located inside the pen. Pigs kept in larger groups showed a lower TUFC than those in smaller groups (P = 0.0191). However, PPSO was lower in pigs kept in smaller groups (1-12 pigs per pen) with more manipulatable materials available. In groups with low PPSOs, more tail lesions were observed (P = 0.0296). No relationship between contact type and tail or ear injuries was detected. In younger pigs, PPSO was higher (49.9 ± 23.2%) than for animals in the second half of the fattening period (45.1 ± 19.9%).

CONCLUSIONS

In this on-farm study, the relationships between VHAT behavior and environmental factors revealed that external factors (e.g., management practices, housing conditions) impact animals' responses to this behavioral test. Therefore, using the VHAT as an animal welfare indicator is valid only if these variables are studied as well.

The human-animal relationship in dairy animals

The present study aims to identify margins for the improvement of dairy animal welfare and production based on the quality of the human-animal relationship (HAR). The main tool proposed to improve the quality of HAR in dairy animals is training of stock-people by targeting their attitude and behaviour. Given that a good quality HAR may benefit the welfare of dairy animals and productivity, new technologies, by monitoring the handling routine on farm, may be more effective in promoting good practices. In particular, the implementation of new technologies may allow identification of specific inappropriate behaviours to be targeted at stockperson level, thus increasing the efficacy of training. However, an issue related to the introduction of new technologies in the farms, particularly in those that follow traditional farming practices, is the resistance to innovation which may be encountered.

Use of a food neophobia test to characterize personality traits of dairy calves

Food neophobia, i.e. the avoidance of novel foods, is common in ruminants and may provide a biologically relevant and practical way to test individual responses to novelty or challenge. We aimed to determine if behavioural responses in a food neophobia test (exposure to a novel total mixed ration) reflected boldness and exploratory personality traits derived from 3 traditional tests (open field, novel human and novel object) in dairy calves. We performed two Principal Component Analyses, one using behaviours from 3 traditional tests (3 factors: 'Bold', 'Exploratory' and 'Active'), and one using behaviours from the food neophobia test (3 factors: 'Eating', 'Inspecting', and 'Avoidance'). A regression analysis determined if individual factor scores from the food neophobia test predicted factor scores from the traditional tests. Contrary to our expectations, 'Avoidance' (latencies to approach and eat the novel food) did not predict boldness trait, and the factors 'Inspecting' (time spent inspecting food and empty buckets) and 'Eating' (time spent eating food and total intake) did not predict exploration trait, but they did predict active trait. These results suggest that the food neophobia test in our study resulted in context-specific behaviours, or that behavioural responses to a novel food present different underlying personality traits. The application of food neophobia to assess specific or generalized personality traits of dairy calves deserves further work.

Calf- and herd-level factors associated with dairy calf reactivity

A positive relationship between handlers and animals in farm systems is essential because the human-animal relationship has implications for welfare and productivity. For this reason, on-farm animal welfare assessment protocols often include the behavioral response of animals to humans to measure the quality of the human-animal relationship. The existing literature has described this relationship as being multifactorial in nature. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the potential influence of farm management and infrastructure characteristics, calf manager traits, and intrinsic features of dairy calves on the human-animal relationship. To this end, an escape test was conducted with 698 calves on 30 dairy farms in Chile. This test measured the calf's response to the active approach of an unfamiliar human (and was scored from 0 [fearful] to 4 [friendly]). The explanatory variables used to predict calves' response in the escape test were grouped according to the following categories: (1) farm management and infrastructure (e.g., calf-dam separation age, space allowance); (2) calf manager (e.g., attitudes, behavior, and background); and (3) calf (e.g., breed, sex, age). We concluded that calf managers with additional jobs on the farm, no training, low job satisfaction, a greater proportion of negative contacts, and more negative attitudes were predictive of fearfulness in the escape test. Holstein breed (compared with Holstein and Jersey crossbreeds) was associated with greater odds of fearful calves. Our study confirms the association between animals' fear and handlers' features, which can potentially be used to select employees on a farm. Understanding the factors that influence fear responses in calves may highlight ways to improve the relationship between animals and humans.

Teat characteristics in relation to animal temperament during milking in buffaloes, and comparison of buffalo and cow teat morphology

This study aimed to examine the teat characteristics in relation to the animal temperament during milking in the Anatolian buffaloes using ultrasonographic, histomorphological and immunohistochemical methods. The teat canal length (TCL), teat wall thickness (TWT), teat cisternal diameter (TCD), teat diameter (TD), teat length (TL), and teat circumference (TC) values in docile (n = 5) and nervous (n = 7) buffaloes were measured at the 0th, 3rd and 6th minute of stimulation. In additional experiments, comparative histomorphology and immunohistochemical examinations of buffalo (n = 7) and cow teats (n = 8) were performed. It was determined that post-stimulation mean TCL values were significantly higher in nervous buffaloes than those of teats in docile buffaloes (p < .05). A significant positive correlation between TCD and TD, TL and TC in both docile and nervous buffaloes was noted (p < .05). Unlike nervous buffaloes where only 3/14 teat canals were open by 3rd minute of milking stimulation, almost all (9/10) teat canals were observed opened in docile buffaloes. There were fewer muscle but more collagen bundles in buffalo teats compared with cow teats. It seems that temperament of animal during milking effects the milking efficiency, and in nervous buffaloes, probably the stimulation alone may not be sufficient for opening of the teat canal and hence achieve complete milking.

Automated Video Behavior Recognition of Pigs Using Two-Stream Convolutional Networks

The detection of pig behavior helps detect abnormal conditions such as diseases and dangerous movements in a timely and effective manner, which plays an important role in ensuring the health and well-being of pigs. Monitoring pig behavior by staff is time consuming, subjective, and impractical. Therefore, there is an urgent need to implement methods for identifying pig behavior automatically. In recent years, deep learning has been gradually applied to the study of pig behavior recognition. Existing studies judge the behavior of the pig only based on the posture of the pig in a still image frame, without considering the motion information of the behavior. However, optical flow can well reflect the motion information. Thus, this study took image frames and optical flow from videos as two-stream input objects to fully extract the temporal and spatial behavioral characteristics. Two-stream convolutional network models based on deep learning were proposed, including inflated 3D convnet (I3D) and temporal segment networks (TSN) whose feature extraction network is Residual Network (ResNet) or the Inception architecture (e.g., Inception with Batch Normalization (BN-Inception), InceptionV3, InceptionV4, or InceptionResNetV2) to achieve pig behavior recognition. A standard pig video behavior dataset that included 1000 videos of feeding, lying, walking, scratching and mounting from five kinds of different behavioral actions of pigs under natural conditions was created. The dataset was used to train and test the proposed models, and a series of comparative experiments were conducted. The experimental results showed that the TSN model whose feature extraction network was ResNet101 was able to recognize pig feeding, lying, walking, scratching, and mounting behaviors with a higher average of 98.99%, and the average recognition time of each video was 0.3163 s. The TSN model (ResNet101) is superior to the other models in solving the task of pig behavior recognition.

Transitioning from conventional to automatic milking: Effects on the human-animal relationship

There are several differences in how an automatic milking system (AMS; milking equipment not requiring human intervention for the milk harvesting process) and a conventional milking system (CMS) are managed, where the effect of milking system type on the human-animal relationship has remained unexplored. A survey and observations from 5 Australian dairy farms transitioning from CMS to AMS were taken twice, 1 yr apart, before and after transition to an AMS. The farmers completed a survey and had all farmer-cow interactions documented for 3 d. In addition, a random selection of lactating cows had their avoidance distance (the distance at which they move away from an approaching person) recorded and were involved in a handling test during both visits. The survey findings indicated that basic management practices remained mostly unchanged, whereas records of farmer-cow interactions showed 4 out of 5 farms had less interaction time after AMS transition. This was caused by a reduction in milk harvesting tasks, where a small portion of this time was re-invested into time that farmers spent around the cows without directly interacting with them and into tasks involving close cow contact. Overall, an approximate 27% decline was observed in avoidance distances of cows from an AMS compared with the CMS. A handling test was performed on 4 of the 5 farms before and after AMS transition, where the farmers were asked to move a selection of cows through a gate one at a time. In the AMS more vocal effort was required to move the cows, and the cows responded with a reduced occurrence of running past the farmer and reduced occurrence of slipping in an attempt to avoid the farmers compared with the CMS. Overall, results show that farmers spent less time interacting with cows in the AMS, and that cows were less fearful around people as seen by reduced avoidance distances and reduced stress responses to close handling.

Public Attitudes towards Cow Welfare and Cow Shelters (Gaushalas) in India

Public attitudes towards cows and cow shelters in India need to be assessed in the contemporary context, as India is facing an overpopulation of street cows, leading to traffic hazards, public health issues, and pollution. We investigated the attitudes of the general public in India towards cow welfare in general and cow shelters (gaushalas) in particular. Eight hundred and twenty-five members of the public, residing in the vicinity of 54 cow shelters, were interviewed for this purpose. Their perception of animal welfare centred on animal care, cows as goddesses and mothers, and doing things properly. More than half visited a shelter daily for religious reasons. Most believed that cow shelters were the best way to manage the stray cow population and felt a community responsibility towards all breeds of cows for animal welfare reasons. Space availability for the cows was the key welfare issue voiced. Older people were more likely to identify animal welfare and culture as the main reason for sheltering cows. Better educated, wealthier, and more religious people visited the shelters most, rating religion and breeding higher as the shelter's main purpose. Males favoured indigenous cow breeds more than females. Village respondents were more likely to consider the facilities adequate compared with country town and urban respondents. In contrast to married respondents, single people were more likely to say that they visited for leisure rather than for religious purposes. The survey indicated that the Indian community was generally supportive of cow sheltering and that visits to the shelters helped them to know that unwanted cattle were being well cared for.

Stress, strain, and pregnancy outcome in postpartum cows

Stress affects the productivity and fertility of cattle. Stress causes strain and individual animals experience different amounts of strain in response to the same amount of stress. The amount of strain determines the impact of stress on fertility. Typical stresses experienced by cattle include environmental, disease, production, nutritional, and psychological. The effect of stress on the reproductive system is mediated by body temperature (heat stress), energy metabolites and metabolic hormones (production and nutritional stresses), the functionality of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and (or) the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The strain that occurs in response to stress affects uterine health, oocyte quality, ovarian function, and the developmental capacity of the conceptus. Cows that have less strain in response to a given stress will be more fertile. The goal for future management and genetic selection in farm animals is to reduce production stress, manage the remaining strain, and genetically select cattle with minimal strain in response to stress.