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Ensley S, Mostrom M. Equine Mycotoxins. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2024; 40:83-94. [PMID: 38061965 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2023.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The main mycotoxins involved in adverse equine health issues are aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and probably ergovaline (fescue grass endophyte toxicosis). Most exposures are through contaminated grains and grain byproducts, although grasses and hays can contain mycotoxins. Clinical signs are often nonspecific and include feed refusal, colic, diarrhea, and liver damage but can be dramatic with neurologic signs associated with equine leukoencephalomalacia and tremorgens. Specific antidotes for mycotoxicosis are rare, and treatment involves stopping the use of contaminated feed, switching to a "clean" feed source, and providing supportive care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Ensley
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, P217 Mosier Hall, 1800 Denison Avenue, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Michelle Mostrom
- North Dakota State University, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, 4035 19th Avenue North, Department 7691 P.O. Box 6050, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, USA.
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2
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Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, del Mazo JKCJ, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Leblanc J, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Dänicke S, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Rovesti E, Steinkellner H, Hoogenboom L(R. Assessment of information as regards the toxicity of deoxynivalenol for horses and poultry. EFSA J 2023; 21:e07806. [PMID: 36751491 PMCID: PMC9892893 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2017, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) adopted a Scientific Opinion on the risks for animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. No observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) and lowest observed adverse effect levels (LOAELs) were derived for different animal species. For horses, an NOAEL of 36 mg DON/kg feed was established, the highest concentration tested and not showing adverse effects. For poultry, an NOAEL of 5 mg DON/kg feed for broiler chickens and laying hens, and an NOAEL of 7 mg DON/kg feed for ducks and turkeys was derived. The European Commission requested EFSA to review the information regarding the toxicity of DON for horses and poultry and to revise, if necessary, the established reference points (RPs). Adverse effect levels of 1.9 and 1.7 mg DON/kg feed for, respectively, broiler chickens and turkeys were derived from reassessment of existing studies and newly available literature, showing that DON causes effects on the intestines, in particular the jejunum, with a decreased villus height but also histological damage. An RP for adverse animal health effects of 0.6 mg/kg feed for broiler chickens and turkeys, respectively, was established. For horses, an adverse effect level of 5.6 mg DON/kg feed was established from studies showing reduced feed intake, with an RP for adverse animal health effects of 3.5 mg/kg feed. For ducks and laying hens, RPs remain unchanged. Based on mean and P95 (UB) exposure estimates performed in the previous Opinion, the risk of adverse health effects of feeds containing DON was considered a potential concern for broiler chickens and turkeys. For horses, the risk for adverse health effects from feed containing DON is low.
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Gomaa N, Elemiri M, Hegazy Y, Zeineldin M, Nassif M, Alcala-Canto Y, Barbabosa-Pliego A, Rivas-Caceres RR, Abdelmegeid M. Clinical and pathological examination of mycotoxicosis as an associated risk factor for colic in equine. Microb Pathog 2021; 163:105377. [PMID: 34974118 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.105377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A retrospective cohort study was conducted on two Egyptian horse farms with most of horses were suffered from abdominal pain to describe the associations between the occurrence of mycotoxicosis and equine colic. The farms owner complain was an unexpected increase in number of colic cases and deaths among horses. The association between colic and risk factors (sex, type of food either dry or mixed with roughages and hematobiochemical parameters) was compared using independent sample T-test. The associations between possible prognostic indicators for colic caused by mycotoxicosis was estimated using logistic regression analysis model. The cumulative incidence, incidence rates for colic attacks, survival rate among diseased horses were additionally estimated. Our results showed that a total of 24 out of the 132 horses suffered from colic due to feeding of ration contaminated with high percent of mycotoxin including Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins and or fusarium mycotoxins. The total cumulative incidence of colic due to mycotoxicosis was 19.7%. The horses fed on dry rations had more chance of developing colic than horses fed on mixed rations (P < 0.05). The overall incidence rate of colic due to mycotoxicosis was estimated at 18 colic attack/1000 horse/month. The mortality rate of horses suffered from colic due to mycotoxicosis was estimated at 5.9% (5/85), while the case fatality rate was estimated at 25% (n = 5/20). Inconclusion, our results showed that mycotoxicosis are considered an important risks factor for colic cases development in equine practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Gomaa
- Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafr-Elsheikh University, Egypt
| | - M Elemiri
- Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafr-Elsheikh University, Egypt
| | - Y Hegazy
- Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafr-Elsheikh University, Egypt
| | - M Zeineldin
- Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Egypt
| | - M Nassif
- Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafr-Elsheikh University, Egypt
| | - Y Alcala-Canto
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico
| | - A Barbabosa-Pliego
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de, México, Toluca, Mexico
| | - R R Rivas-Caceres
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad, Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico.
| | - M Abdelmegeid
- Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafr-Elsheikh University, Egypt
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Dänicke S, Saltzmann J, Liermann W, Glatter M, Hüther L, Kersten S, Zeyner A, Feige K, Warnken T. Evaluation of Inner Exposure of Horses to Zearalenone (ZEN), Deoxynivalenol (DON) and Their Metabolites in Relation to Colic and Health-Related Clinical-Chemical Traits. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080588. [PMID: 34437459 PMCID: PMC8402592 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Revised: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contaminated feed has been associated with colic of horses caused by intestinal disorders. Whether such disease conditions alter the intestinal toxin metabolism and transfer across a compromised mucosal barrier is unknown. A screening approach was used to relate blood residue levels of DON, ZEN and their metabolites to the status of the horses (sick vs. healthy). A total of 55 clinically healthy horses from 6 different farms with varying feeding background served as control for sick horses (N = 102) hospitalized due to colic. ZEN, alpha-zearalenol (ZEL), beta-ZEL and DON were detectable in peripheral blood as indicators for the inner exposure with significant farm effects for alpha- and beta-ZEL. However, the levels in sick horses were similar to all farms. Moreover, the proportion of beta-ZEL of all detected ZEN metabolites as an indicator for the degree of metabolism of ZEN was not different for sick horses but differed amongst the control farms. Although the incidence of DON in blood was generally low and not significantly different amongst healthy and sick horses, the positive samples were nearly exclusively found in sick horses suggesting either a higher toxin transfer, an association of DON with the development of colic or a different feeding background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany; (J.S.); (L.H.); (S.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-531-58044-102
| | - Janine Saltzmann
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany; (J.S.); (L.H.); (S.K.)
| | - Wendy Liermann
- Institute of Nutritional Physiology “Oskar Kellner”, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany;
| | - Maren Glatter
- Group Animal Nutrition, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Theodor-Lieser-Str.11, D-06120 Halle/Saale, Germany; (M.G.); (A.Z.)
| | - Liane Hüther
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany; (J.S.); (L.H.); (S.K.)
| | - Susanne Kersten
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany; (J.S.); (L.H.); (S.K.)
| | - Annette Zeyner
- Group Animal Nutrition, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Theodor-Lieser-Str.11, D-06120 Halle/Saale, Germany; (M.G.); (A.Z.)
| | - Karsten Feige
- Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 9, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (K.F.); (T.W.)
| | - Tobias Warnken
- Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 9, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (K.F.); (T.W.)
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5
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Reid WK. Mycotoxins causing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Med Hypotheses 2021; 149:110541. [PMID: 33631494 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2021.110541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) remains a terminal disease without an established etiology for the majority of patients. The dominant theory of ALS before the 1970's was the presence of a poison. One of the primary means of treating patients with a toxic exposure has been plasma exchange, but plasma exchange of ALS patients failed to alter the clinical course. The failure of plasma exchange assumes the patient is no longer exposed to the poison. If the exposure to poison continued, then plasma exchange alone would fail. I found laboratory evidence of a poisoning in every patient with ALS examined. A search for specific poisons found evidence of mycotoxins. Treatment with antifungal agents corrected the laboratory findings. All of the ALS patients had evidence of immune suppression. There is mounting evidence that many mycotoxins cause both neurotoxicity and immune suppression. These mycotoxins may be able to explain the full spectrum of pathology in ALS without a secondaryevent.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K Reid
- Hematology & Oncology, 613 Greenwood Rd., Chapel Hill, N.C. 27514, United States.
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6
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de Santis B, Stockhofe N, Wal JM, Weesendorp E, Lallès JP, van Dijk J, Kok E, De Giacomo M, Einspanier R, Onori R, Brera C, Bikker P, van der Meulen J, Kleter G. Case studies on genetically modified organisms (GMOs): Potential risk scenarios and associated health indicators. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 117:36-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Li N, Deng L, Li J, Wang Z, Han Y, Liu C. Selective effect of myclobutanil enantiomers on fungicidal activity and fumonisin production by Fusarium verticillioides under different environmental conditions. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 147:102-109. [PMID: 29933978 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Myclobutanil is a widely used triazole fungicide, comprising two enantiomers with different fungicidal activities, non-target toxicities, and environmental fates. The enantioselective effects of myclobutanil on fumonisin B (FB) production by Fusarium verticillioides, an important pathogen, have not yet been investigated. In the present study, the fungicidal activities of rac-myclobutanil and its enantiomers on F. verticillioides cultured on maize-based media were studied under different water activity and temperature conditions. The FB levels were measured to assess the enantioselective effects on FB production when F. verticillioides were cultured treated with EC50 and EC90 concentrations (concentrations inhibiting mycelial growth by 50.0% and 90.0%, respectively) of myclobutanil and enantiomers under different conditions. The fungicidal activities of rac-myclobutanil and its enantiomers decreased with increasing temperature and decreasing water activity. Little difference in fungicidal activity was observed between the enantiomers. FB production was significantly influenced by temperature, aw, and fungicides dose. At EC50 concentrations, rac-myclobutantil and its enantiomers were shown to enhance mycotoxin production and enantioselective effects of enantiomers on FB production were observed under certain conditions. This is the first report on the differential effects of myclobutanil enantiomers on the control of F. verticillioides growth and FB production in maize-based media under different conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Li
- Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Agriculture& Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application of Guangdong Province, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Road 483, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Luqing Deng
- Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Agriculture& Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application of Guangdong Province, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Road 483, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jianfang Li
- Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Agriculture& Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application of Guangdong Province, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Road 483, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zhengbing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Agriculture& Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application of Guangdong Province, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Road 483, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yiye Han
- Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Agriculture& Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application of Guangdong Province, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Road 483, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Chenglan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Agriculture& Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application of Guangdong Province, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Road 483, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China.
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8
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Takagi M, Uno S, Kokushi E, Sato F, Wijayagunawardane M, Fink-Gremmels J. Measurement of urinary concentrations of the mycotoxins zearalenone and sterigmatocystin as biomarkers of exposure in mares. Reprod Domest Anim 2017; 53:68-73. [PMID: 28921680 DOI: 10.1111/rda.13054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins may affect animal health, including reproduction. Little is known about the clinical relevance of exposure of horses to contaminated feed. This study aimed at (i) monitoring the levels of the mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEN), with its metabolites α- and β-zearalenol (α- and β-ZOL), and sterigmatocystin (STC) in urine samples from thoroughbred mares in Japan and (ii) relating these findings to the potential effects on reproductive efficacy of breeding mares. Sixty-three urine samples of breeding mares from 59 breeding farms were used. Urine samples and reproductive records were collected from each mare when it was presented to the stallion station. Urinary concentrations of ZEN, α- and β-ZOL, and STC were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). ZEN, α- and β-ZOL were measurable in the urine of all examined mares, indicating the prevalence of ZEN in equine feeds. In seven of the 63 samples, STC was also detected at levels ranging from 1.3 to 18.0 pg/mg creatinine. No significant correlation between the concentrations of mycotoxins and pregnancy status was observed. In conclusion, measurement of mycotoxins in urine samples is a useful non-invasive method for monitoring the systemic exposure of mares to multiple mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Takagi
- Laboratory of Theriogenology, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - S Uno
- The Education and Research Center for Marine Resources and Environment, Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - E Kokushi
- The Education and Research Center for Marine Resources and Environment, Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - F Sato
- Equine Breeding Science, Hidaka Training and Research Center, Japan Racing Association, Hokkaido, Japan
| | | | - J Fink-Gremmels
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Division of Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Clinical Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan, The Netherlands
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, De Saeger S, Eriksen GS, Farmer P, Fremy JM, Gong YY, Meyer K, Naegeli H, Parent-Massin D, Rietjens I, van Egmond H, Altieri A, Eskola M, Gergelova P, Ramos Bordajandi L, Benkova B, Dörr B, Gkrillas A, Gustavsson N, van Manen M, Edler L. Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04718. [PMID: 32625635 PMCID: PMC7010102 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink.
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10
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Dänicke S, Eriksen GS, Altieri A, Roldán-Torres R, Oswald IP. Risks for animal health related to the presence of zearalenone and its modified forms in feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04851. [PMID: 32625539 PMCID: PMC7009830 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurs predominantly in cereal grains. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risk to animal health related to ZEN and its modified forms in feed. Modified forms of ZEN occurring in feed include phase I metabolites α‐zearalenol (α‐ZEL), β‐zearalenol (β‐ZEL), α‐zearalanol (α‐ZAL), β‐zearalanol (β‐ZAL), zearalanone (ZAN) and phase II conjugates. ZEN has oestrogenic activity and the oestrogenic activity of the modified forms of ZEN differs considerably. For ZEN, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) established no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) for pig (piglets and gilts), poultry (chicken and fattening turkeys), sheep and fish (extrapolated from carp) and lowest observed effect level (LOAEL) for dogs. No reference points could be established for cattle, ducks, goats, horses, rabbits, mink and cats. For modified forms, no reference points could be established for any animal species and relative potency factors previously established from rodents by the CONTAM Panel in 2016 were used. The dietary exposure was estimated on 17,706 analytical results with high proportions of left‐censored data (ZEN about 60%, ZAN about 70%, others close to 100%). Samples for ZEN were collected between 2001 and 2015 in 25 different European countries, whereas samples for the modified forms were collected mostly between 2013 and 2015 from three Member States. Based on exposure estimates, the risk of adverse health effects of feed containing ZEN was considered extremely low for poultry and low for sheep, dog, pig and fish. The same conclusions also apply to the sum of ZEN and its modified forms.
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Albonico M, Schütz LF, Caloni F, Cortinovis C, Spicer LJ. Toxicological effects of fumonisin B1 alone and in combination with other fusariotoxins on bovine granulosa cells. Toxicon 2016; 118:47-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 04/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Schumann B, Winkler J, Mickenautsch N, Warnken T, Dänicke S. Effects of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and related metabolites on equine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in vitro and background occurrence of these toxins in horses. Mycotoxin Res 2016; 32:153-61. [PMID: 27255919 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-016-0250-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Both deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and their metabolites are known to modulate immune cells in various species whereby viability and proliferation are influenced. Such effects were rarely examined in horses. Therefore, one aim of the present study was to titrate the inhibitory concentrations of DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3AcDON), de-epoxy-DON (DOM-1), ZEN, and α- and β-zearalenol (ZEL) at which viability and proliferation of equine PBMC were reduced by 50 % (IC50) and 10 % (IC10) in vitro. For evaluation of practical relevance of the in vitro findings, a further aim was to screen horses for the background occurrence of DON, ZEN, and their metabolites in systemic circulation and to relate toxin residues both to the inhibitory toxin concentrations and to hematological and clinical-chemical characteristics.The IC50 (μM) for DON, 3AcDON, β-ZEL, α-ZEL, and ZEN were determined at 3.09, 25.90, 75.44, 97.44, and 98.15 in unstimulated cells, respectively, while in proliferating cells, the corresponding IC50 values were 0.73, 6.89, 45.16, 75.96, and 82.51. Neither viability nor proliferation was influenced by DOM-1 up to a concentration of 100 μM.The in vivo screening (N = 49) revealed the occurrence of ZEN (N = 24), α-ZEL (N = 3), β-ZEL (N = 37), DON, and DOM-1 (N = 2). The detected concentrations were much lower than the corresponding IC50 while the IC10 of DON and β-ZEL for proliferating PBMC corresponded to approximately 26 and 35 ng/mL which might be relevant when contaminated diets are fed.Clinical-chemical and hematological traits were not related to mycotoxin residue levels excepting blood urea nitrogen which was positively correlated to the sum of β-ZEL, α-ZEL, and ZEN concentration. Whether this reflects simply the feeding history of the horses or renal failures giving rise to a prolonged half-life of the toxins needs to be clarified further.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Janine Winkler
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nicola Mickenautsch
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Tobias Warnken
- Horse Clinic of the University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Braunschweig, Germany.
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13
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Schulz AK, Kersten S, Dänicke S, Coenen M, Vervuert I. Effects of deoxynivalenol in naturally contaminated wheat on feed intake and health status of horses. Mycotoxin Res 2015; 31:209-16. [PMID: 26420605 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-015-0234-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the short-term effects of deoxynivalenol (DON), administered at two different concentrations via a feed preparation using naturally contaminated wheat, on feed intake, liver and kidney metabolism and immunomodulatory properties in horses. Twelve geldings were randomly assigned to one of three dietary treatments for 21 days. DON was provided via naturally contaminated wheat (14.6 ± 6.5 mg DON/kg dry matter). The daily feed intake was adjusted to 4 kg of wheat and 1.7 kg of silage per 100 kg of body weight (BW). Horses were fed one of the following diets: control wheat with 0% contaminated wheat (CON), wheat mixture containing 53 ± 2% of DON-contaminated wheat [low DON intake (LDI)] or wheat mixture containing 78 ± 4% of DON-contaminated wheat [high DON intake (HDI)]. CON, LDI and HDI corresponded to a targeted daily DON intake via the complete ration of <5, 50 and 75 μg/kg BW, respectively. None of the horses demonstrated any clinical signs commonly associated with the intake of DON such as colic or depression. HDI was associated with lower daily wheat intake on day 21. Serum DON concentrations increased with higher DON intake. The non-toxic DON metabolite, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) was only detected on day 21 of the DON feeding period. No changes in haematological and serum parameters or serum globulins or in the ex vivo proliferation response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells were observed. These results suggest that horses are less sensitive to DON exposure than other domestic species, for example, swine. Therefore, the European Commission guidance value for critical DON concentrations in swine feed (complete diet) of 0.9 mg/kg could be safely applied for rations intended for feeding adult horses as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Katharina Schulz
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Nutrition Diseases and Dietetics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierklinken 9, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Susanne Kersten
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Manfred Coenen
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Nutrition Diseases and Dietetics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierklinken 9, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ingrid Vervuert
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Nutrition Diseases and Dietetics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierklinken 9, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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Li Y, Liu Y, Yang Z, Wan X, Chi F. The efficacy of clay enterosorbent to ameliorate the toxicity of aflatoxin B1 from contaminated corn (Zea mays) on hematology, serum biochemistry, and oxidative stress in ducklings. J APPL POULTRY RES 2012. [DOI: 10.3382/japr.2012-00538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Khol-Parisini A, Hellweg P, Razzazi-Fazeli E, Saalmüller A, Strasser A, Tichy A, Zenteke J. Highly deoxynivalenol contaminated oats and immune function in horses. Arch Anim Nutr 2012; 66:149-61. [PMID: 22641926 DOI: 10.1080/1745039x.2012.672220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of deoxynivalenol (DON) on cellular and humoral immune parameters in horses. A feeding trial using naturally contaminated oats with high (20.2 mg/kg) and low (0.49 mg/kg) levels of DON was conducted. Two groups of five mares were fed 2 kg oats daily with high or low DON levels for two weeks, using a crossover design with a three-week wash-out period. No adverse effects on general health were observed. Only minor diet-related changes in differential blood counts and serum biochemistry were noted. Serum haptoglobin concentration was significantly elevated after feeding DON (p = 0.04). Lymphocyte subsets (CD4+ CD8+, CD2+, CD21+, MHCII+) and lymphocyte proliferation data (concanavalin A, phytohemagglutinin, pokeweed mitogen) were not different between feeding-groups. It can be concluded that daily DON intakes as high as 6.9 to 9.5 mg/100 kg BW appear to have no major impact on the measured immune response of horses, indicating that this species has a high tolerance for DON.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annabella Khol-Parisini
- Institute of Nutrition, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
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Songsermsakul P, Böhm J, Aurich C, Zentek J, Razzazi-Fazeli E. The levels of zearalenone and its metabolites in plasma, urine and faeces of horses fed with naturally, Fusarium toxin-contaminated oats. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2011; 97:155-61. [PMID: 22129272 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2011.01253.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Concentration profile of zearalenone (ZON) and its metabolites in plasma, urine and faeces samples of horses fed with Fusarium toxin-contaminated oats is described. In plasma, β-zearalenol (β-ZOL) was detected at high levels on day 10 of the study (3.21-6.24 μg/l). β-Zearalenol and α-zearalenol were the major metabolites in urine. Zearalenone, α-ZOL and β-ZOL were predominantly found in faeces. Zearalanone could also be detected in urine (1.34-5.79 μg/l) and faeces (1 μg/kg). The degree of glucuronidation was established in all sample types, approximately 100% in urine and plasma. Low per cent of glucuronidation (4-15%) was found in faeces samples. The results indicate the main conversion of ZON into β-ZOL in horse. This finding could explain why horse is not susceptible to ZON in comparison with swine which produce α-ZOL as a predominant metabolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Songsermsakul
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinä rplatz 1,Vienna, Austria
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Effects of fusariotoxins in the equine species. Vet J 2010; 186:157-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 09/11/2009] [Accepted: 09/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Liesener K, Curtui V, Dietrich R, Märtlbauer E, Usleber E. Mycotoxins in horse feed. Mycotoxin Res 2009; 26:23-30. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-009-0037-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Revised: 10/20/2009] [Accepted: 10/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Vasatkova A, Krizova S, Adam V, Zeman L, Kizek R. Changes in metallothionein level in rat hepatic tissue after administration of natural mouldy wheat. Int J Mol Sci 2009; 10:1138-60. [PMID: 19399242 PMCID: PMC2672023 DOI: 10.3390/ijms10031138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2009] [Revised: 02/28/2009] [Accepted: 03/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by microfungi that are capable of causing disease and death in humans and other animals. This work was aimed at investigation of influence of mouldy wheat contaminated by pathogenic fungi producing mycotoxins on metallothionein levels in hepatic tissue of rats. The rats were administrating feed mixtures with different contents of vitamins or naturally mouldy wheat for 28 days. It was found that the wheat contained deoxynivalenol (80 +/- 5 microg per kg of mouldy wheat), zearalenone (56 +/- 3 microg/kg), T2-toxin (20 +/- 2 microg/kg) and aflatoxins as a sum of B1, B2, G1 and G2 (3.9 +/- 0.2 microg/kg). Rats were fed diets containing 0, 33, 66 and 100% naturally moulded wheat. Control group 0, 33, 66 and 100% contained vitamins according to Nutrient Requirements of Rats (NRC). Other four groups (control group with vitamins, vit33, vit66 and vit100%) were fed on the same levels of mouldy wheat, also vitamins at levels 100% higher than the previous mixtures. We determined weight, feed conversion and performed dissection to observe pathological processes. Changes between control group and experimental groups exposed to influence of mouldy wheat and experimental groups supplemented by higher concentration of vitamins and mouldy wheat were not observed. Livers were sampled and did not demonstrate significant changes in morphology compared to control either. In the following experiments the levels of metallothionein as a marker of oxidative stress was determined. We observed a quite surprising trend in metallothionein levels in animals supplemented with increased concentration of vitamins. Its level enhanced with increasing content of mouldy wheat. It was possible to determine a statistically significant decline (p<0.05) between control group and groups of animals fed with 33, 66 and 100% mouldy wheat. It is likely that some mycotoxins presented in mouldy wheat are able to block the mechanism of metallothionein synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Vasatkova
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic; E-Mails:
(A.V.);
(S.K.);
(V.A.);
(L.Z.)
| | - Sarka Krizova
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic; E-Mails:
(A.V.);
(S.K.);
(V.A.);
(L.Z.)
| | - Vojtech Adam
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic; E-Mails:
(A.V.);
(S.K.);
(V.A.);
(L.Z.)
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ladislav Zeman
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic; E-Mails:
(A.V.);
(S.K.);
(V.A.);
(L.Z.)
| | - Rene Kizek
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:
; Tel. +420-5-4513-3350; Fax: +420-5-4521-2044
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Hill J. Impacts of nutritional technology on feeds offered to horses: A review of effects of processing on voluntary intake, digesta characteristics and feed utilisation. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2007.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Minervini F, Giannoccaro A, Fornelli F, Dell'Aquila ME, Minoia P, Visconti A. Influence of mycotoxin zearalenone and its derivatives (alpha and beta zearalenol) on apoptosis and proliferation of cultured granulosa cells from equine ovaries. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2006; 4:62. [PMID: 17137489 PMCID: PMC1697814 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-4-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2006] [Accepted: 11/30/2006] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) and its derivatives, alpha and beta-zearalenol (alpha and beta-ZOL), synthesized by genera Fusarium, often occur as contaminants in cereal grains and animal feeds. The importance of ZEA on reproductive disorders is well known in domestic animals species, particularly in swine and cattle. In the horse, limited data are available to date on the influence of dietary exposure to ZEA on reproductive health and on its in vitro effects on reproductive cells. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of ZEA and its derivatives, alpha and beta-ZOL, on granulosa cells (GCs) from the ovaries of cycling mares. METHODS The cell proliferation was evaluated by using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) test after 3 days exposure at different concentrations of ZEA and its derivatives (from 1 x 10-7 to 0.1 microM). The apoptosis induction was evaluated after 1 day exposure, by DNA analysis using flow cytometry. RESULTS An increase in cell proliferation with respect to the control was observed in the presence of ZEA at 1 x 10-3 and 1 x 10-4 microM and apoptosis was induced by all mycotoxins at different concentrations. CONCLUSION The simultaneous presence of apoptosis and proliferation in GC cultures treated with zearalenones could indicate that these mycotoxins could be effective in inducing follicular atresia. These effects of zearalenones may result from both direct interaction with oestrogen-receptors as well as interaction with the enzymes 3alpha (beta)-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD), involved in the synthesis and metabolism of endogenous steroid hormones. These cellular disturbances, described for the first time in equine GCs cultured in vitro, could be hypothesized as referred to reproductive failures of unknown ethiology in the mare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiorenza Minervini
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Alessandra Giannoccaro
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Francesca Fornelli
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Elena Dell'Aquila
- Department of Animal Production, University of Bari, Strada Provinciale per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano Bari, Italy
| | - Paolo Minoia
- Department of Animal Production, University of Bari, Strada Provinciale per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano Bari, Italy
- Deceased
| | - Angelo Visconti
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70124 Bari, Italy
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