Bilobalide attenuates hypoxia induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunctions in 3T3-L1 adipocytes via its antioxidant potential

Impact of targeting the platelet-activating factor and its receptor in cancer treatment

The lipid mediator platelet-activating factor (PAF) and its receptor (PAFR) signaling play critical roles in a wide range of physiological and pathophysiological conditions, including cancer growth and metastasis. The ability of PAFR to interact with other oncogenic signaling cascades makes it a promising target for cancer treatment. Moreover, numerous natural and synthetic compounds, characterized by diverse pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor effects, have been explored for their potential as PAF and PAFR antagonists. In this review, we provide comprehensive evidence regarding the PAF/PAFR signaling pathway, highlighting the effectiveness of various classes of PAF and PAFR inhibitors and antagonists across multiple cancer models. Notably, the synergistic effects of PAF and PAFR antagonists in enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiation therapy in several experimental cancer models are also discussed. Overall, the synthesis of literature review indicates that targeting the PAF/PAFR axis represents a promising approach for cancer treatment and also exerts synergy with chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Exploring the multifaceted role of ginkgolides and bilobalide from Ginkgo biloba in mitigating metabolic disorders

The ancient Ginkgo biloba tree grows across various regions, with distinctive leaves emitting a unique fragrance. Its extract contains flavonoids, organic acids, and terpenoids. Ginkgolide and bilobalide, which are G. biloba leaf extracts, offer diverse pharmaceutical benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of these compounds are crucial for mitigating neurodegeneration, particularly in diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, their effectiveness in countering oxidative stress and inflammation highlights their potential to prevent cardiovascular ailments. This study also suggests that these compounds have a promising impact on lipid metabolism, suggesting their significance in addressing obesity-related metabolic disorders. In conclusion, ginkgolides and bilobalide exhibit promising effects in sustaining the integrity of the nervous and endocrine systems, along with the modulation of lipid metabolism. The diverse health benefits suggest that these compounds could serve as promising therapeutic interventions for various conditions, including neurological, cardiovascular, and metabolic diseases.

The role and therapeutic potential of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in ischemic stroke

Stroke is a prevalent cerebrovascular condition with a global impact, causing significant rates of illness and death. Despite extensive research, the available treatment options for stroke remain restricted. Hence, it is crucial to gain a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms associated with the onset and advancement of stroke in order to establish a theoretical foundation for novel preventive and therapeutic approaches. NF-κB, also known as nuclear factor κB, is a transcription factor responsible for controlling the expression of numerous genes and plays a crucial role in diverse physiological processes. NF-κB is triggered and regulates neuroinflammation and other processes after stroke, promoting the generation of cytokine storms and contributing to the advancement of ischemic stroke (IS). Therefore, NF-κB could potentially play a vital role in stroke by regulating diverse pathophysiological processes. This review provides an overview of the functions of NF-κB in stroke and its governing mechanisms. In addition, our attention is directed towards various potential therapies that aim to inhibit the NF-κB signaling pathway in order to offer valuable insights for the advancement of innovative treatment approaches for stroke.

Bilobalide attenuates lipopolysaccharide‑induced HepG2 cell injury by inhibiting TLR4‑NF‑κB signaling via the PI3K/Akt pathway

Inflammation is involved in the pathological process underlying a number of liver diseases. Bilobalide (BB) is a natural compound from Ginkgo biloba leaves that was recently demonstrated to exert hepatoprotective effects by inhibiting oxidative stress in the liver cancer cell line HepG2. The anti-inflammatory activity of BB has been reported in recent studies. The major objective of the present study was to investigate whether BB could attenuate inflammation-associated cell damage. HepG2 cells were cultured with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and BB, and cell damage was evaluated by measuring cell viability using MTT assay. The activity of the NF-κB signaling pathway was assessed by measuring the levels of IκBα, NF-κB p65, phosphorylated (p)-IκBα, p-p65, p65 DNA-binding activity and inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. A toll-like receptor (TLR)4 inhibitor (CLI-095) was used to detect the involvement of TLR4 in cell injury caused by LPS. In addition, the PI3K/Akt inhibitor LY294002 was applied to explore the involvement of the PI3K/Akt axis in mediating the effects of BB. The results demonstrated that LPS induced HepG2 cell injury. LPS also elevated the levels of p-IκBα, p-p65, p65 DNA-binding activity and inflammatory cytokines. However, CLI-095 significantly attenuated the LPS-induced cell damage and inhibited the activation of NF-κB signaling. BB also dose-dependently attenuated the LPS-induced cell damage, activation of NF-κB signaling and TLR4 overexpression. Furthermore, it was observed that LY294002 diminished the cytoprotective effects of BB on cell injury, TLR4 expression and NF-κB activation. These findings indicated that BB could attenuate LPS-induced inflammatory injury to HepG2 cells by regulating TLR4-NF-κB signaling.

Inhibitory effect of bilobalide on Staphylococcus aureus von Willebrand factor-binding protein and its therapeutic effect in mice with pneumonia

AIMS

Disabling bacterial virulence with small molecules has been proposed as a potential strategy to prevent bacterial pathogenicity. The von Willebrand factor-binding protein of Staphylococcus aureus was identified previously as a key virulence determinant. Our objective was to discover a von Willebrand-factor binding protein (vWbp) inhibitor distinct from the antibiotics used to prevent infections resulting from S. aureus.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Using coagulation assays, we found that the sesquiterpene trilactone bilobalide blocks coagulation mediated by vWbp, but has no impact on the growth of S. aureus at a concentration of 128 μg ml-1. Moreover, a mouse model of pneumonia caused by S. aureus indicated that bilobalide could attenuate S. aureus virulence in vivo. This effect is achieved not by interfering with the expression of vWbp but by binding to vWbp, as demonstrated by western blotting, thermal shift assays, and fluorescence quenching assays. Using molecular dynamic simulations and point mutagenesis analysis, we identified that the Q17A and R453A residues are key residues for the binding of bilobalide to vWbp.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, we tested the ability of bilobalide to inhibit S. aureus infections by targeting vWbp and explored the potential mechanism of this activity.

Plateau Adaptation Gene Analyses Reveal Transcriptomic, Proteomic, and Dual Omics Expression in the Lung Tissues of Tibetan and Yorkshire Pigs

Elevated environments such as plateaus are often classified as low oxygen environments. The hypoxic adaptation mechanisms utilized by organisms in these conditions are not well understood. To address this, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in hypoxia adaptation were assessed using two pig breeds (Tibetan pig [TP] and Yorkshire sow [YY]). Genes related to lung tissue responses to hypoxia were assessed using transcriptomic (using RNA-seq) and proteomic (using iTRAQ) analysis. A total of 1021 DEGs were screened out. In the iTRAQ omics data, a total of 22,100 peptides were obtained and 4518 proteins were found after filtering. A total of 271 differentially expressed proteins [DEPs] were screened using the conditions of p < 0.05; FC ≤ 0.833; and FC ≥ 1.2. A total of 14 DEGs at the mRNA and protein levels were identified and found to be associated with regulation of the inflammatory response; blood particles; and MAPK cascade response regulation. Among the DEGs, six were associated with hypoxia adaptation function (mitochondria and glycolysis) in pigs. The results of this study identify novel candidate genes involved in porcine hypoxia adaptation mechanisms.

Protective Effects of Ginkgolide on a Cellular Model of Alzheimer's Disease via Suppression of the NF-κB Signaling Pathway

NF-κB signaling has been reported to play a key regulatory role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of ginkgolide on cell viability in an AD cellular model involving an APP/PS1 double gene-transfected HEK293 cell line (APP/PS1-HEK293) and further explore the mechanisms of action related to NF-κB signaling. The optimal time point and concentration of ginkgolide for cell proliferation were screened using a cell counting kit-8 assay. Based on the results, an in vitro study was performed by co-culture of APP/PS1-HEK293 with different dosages of ginkgolide, followed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to measure the levels of supernatant tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6, as well as western blotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction to detect intracellular protein and mRNA expression of NF-κB p65, IκBa, Bcl-2, and Bax. APP/PS1-HEK293 cells exhibited the highest cell viability at a concentration of 100 µg/ml after 48 h of treatment with ginkgolide. The supernatant levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the high-dosage ginkgolide-treated groups were lower than those in the control group. Compared with the control group, there were decreased intracellular protein and mRNA expression of NF-κB p65 and Bax, but increased protein and mRNA expression of IκBa in both high-dosage and low-dosage groups. Ginkgolide may enhance cell viability, indicative of its neuroprotective effects on AD, at least partially via suppression of the NF-κB signaling pathway involving anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammation mechanisms. Therefore, ginkgolide might be a promising therapeutic agent against AD.

Engineering nanomedicines to inhibit hypoxia-inducible Factor-1 for cancer therapy

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), an essential promoter of tumor progression, has attracted increasing attention as a therapeutic target. In addition to hypoxic cellular conditions, HIF-1 activation can be triggered by cancer treatment, which causes drug tolerance and therapeutic failure. To date, a series of effective strategies have been explored to suppress HIF-1 function, including silencing the HIF-1α gene, inhibiting HIF-1α protein translation, degrading HIF-1α protein, and inhibiting HIF-1 transcription. Furthermore, nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have been widely developed to improve the stability and pharmacokinetics of HIF-1 inhibitors or achieve HIF-1-targeted combination therapies as a nanoplatform. In this review, we summarize the current literature on nanomedicines targeting HIF-1 to combat cancer and discuss their potential for future development.

Bilobalide: A review of its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and safety

Bilobalide is a natural sesquiterpene trilactone from Ginkgo biloba leaves. It has good water solubility and is widely used in food and pharmaceutical fields. In the last decade, a plethora of studies on the pharmacological activities of bilobalide has been conducted and demonstrated that bilobalide possessed an extensive range of pharmacological activities such as neuroprotective, antioxidative, antiinflammatory, anti-ischemic, and cardiovascular protective activities. Pharmacokinetic studies indicated that bilobalide may have the characteristics of rapid absorption, good bioavailability, wide distribution, and slow elimination. This review aims to summarize the advances in pharmacological, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and safety studies of bilobalide in the last decade with an emphasis on its neuroprotective and antiinflammatory activities, to provide researchers with the latest information and point out the limitations of relevant research at the current stage and the aspects that should be strengthened in future research.

Synergistic Effects of Ginkgolide B and Protocatechuic Acid on the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Ginkgo biloba extract (EGB) has many pharmacological activities. In the quality standard of EGB, the main quality control indexes are total flavone (content ≥ 24%) and total lactone (content ≥ 6%). There are no specific limits for nearly 70% of "other components". In recent years, in order to pursue the production of a high-ketone ester, some enterprises removed the unwanted components, including some organic acids. Protocatechuic acid (PCA), as an important organic acid, has been reported to have a variety of biological activities. It is necessary to explore whether it can promote the biological activities of the main functional components of EGB. In this study, PCA was selected to be combined with Ginkgolide B (GB) for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. In vitro, rotenone (rot) was used to induce PC12 cells. The survival rate was tested by the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-dimethyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidase were detected to analyze the effects of drugs on oxidative stress. The apoptosis was tested via Western blot. The results show that the cell viability was increased, morphology was improved, the oxidative stress level decreased, and the apoptosis was inhibited after the combination treatment of GB and PCA, and the effect was better than GB or PCA alone. In vivo, MPTP (30 mg/kg) was used to induce Parkinson's disease (PD) in male C57BL/6 mice. The motor ability of the mice was measured by pole-climbing and the suspension. The injury of nerve cells was indicated by HE staining. Oxidative stress levels were tested via antioxidant enzyme activity. The number of dopaminergic neurons was reflected by TH staining. Results show that the combination treatment of GB and PCA could significantly restore the motor ability of PD mice, reduce the injury of nerve cells, improve the activity of the antioxidant enzyme in the brain tissue, and increase the expression of TH in the substantia nigra of midbrain. Our study shows that PCA increases the efficacy of GB (the main functional ingredient of EGB) in the treatment of Parkinson's disease, which provides a new idea for the treatment of nervous system diseases and a new concept for the efficient utilization of active components in Ginkgo biloba leaves.

Long-term, high-fat feeding exacerbates short-term increases in adipose mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, without impairing mitochondrial respiration

White adipose tissue (WAT) dysfunction in obesity is implicated in the onset of whole body insulin resistance. Alterations in mitochondrial bioenergetics, namely impaired mitochondrial respiration and increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) production, have been suggested to contribute to this metabolic dysregulation. However, techniques investigating mitochondrial function are classically normalized to tissue weight, which may be confounding when considering obesity-related adipocyte hypertrophy. Furthermore, the effect of long-term high-fat diet (HFD) on mtROS in WAT has yet to be elucidated. Therefore, we sought to determine the HFD-mediated temporal changes in mitochondrial respiration and mtROS emission in WAT. C57BL/6N mice received low-fat diet or HFD for 1 or 8 wk and changes in inguinal WAT (iWAT) and epididymal WAT (eWAT) were assessed. While tissue weight-normalized mitochondrial respiration was reduced in iWAT following 8-wk HFD-feeding, this effect was mitigated when adipocyte cell size and/or number were considered. These data suggest HFD does not impair mitochondrial respiratory capacity per adipocyte within WAT. In support of this assertion, within eWAT compensatory increases in lipid-supported and maximal succinate-supported respiration occurred at 8 wk despite cell hypertrophy and increases in WAT inflammation. Although these data suggest impairments in mitochondrial respiration do not contribute to HFD-mediated WAT phenotype, lipid-supported mtROS emission increased following 1-wk HFD in eWAT, while both lipid and carbohydrate-supported mtROS were increased at 8 wk in both depots. Combined, these data establish that while HFD does not impair adipocyte mitochondrial respiratory capacity, increased mtROS is an enduring physiological occurrence within WAT in HFD-induced obesity.

Bilobalide protects against ischemia/reperfusion-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses via the MAPK/NF-휅B pathways in rats

Background

Clinically, skeletal muscle ischemia/reperfusion injury is a life-threatening syndrome that is often caused by skeletal muscle damage and is characterized by oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Bilobalide has been found to have antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. However, it is unclear whether bilobalide can protect skeletal muscle from ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Methods

The effects of bilobalide on ischemia/reperfusion-injured skeletal muscle were investigated by performing hematoxylin and eosin staining and assessing the wet weight/dry weight ratio of muscle tissue. Then, we measured lipid peroxidation, antioxidant activity and inflammatory cytokine levels. Moreover, Western blotting was conducted to examine the protein levels of MAPK/NF-휅B pathway members.

Results

Bilobalide treatment could protected hind limb skeletal muscle from ischemia/reperfusion injury by alleviating oxidative stress and inflammatory responses via the MAPK/NF-휅B pathways.

Conclusions

Bilobalide may be a promising drug for I/R-injured muscle tissue. However, the specific mechanisms for the protective effects still need further study.

Metoprolol Inhibits Profibrotic Remodeling of Epicardial Adipose Tissue in a Canine Model of Chronic Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Background Whether chronic obstructive sleep apnea ( OSA ) could promote epicardial adipose tissue ( EAT ) secretion of profibrotic adipokines, and thereby contribute to atrial fibrosis, and the potential therapeutic effects of metoprolol remain unknown. Methods and Results A chronic OSA canine model was established by repeatedly clamping the endotracheal tube for and then reopening it for 4 hours every other day for 12 weeks. In a metoprolol treatment group, metoprolol succinate was administered daily for 12 weeks. The EAT infiltration and left atrial fibrosis were examined. The expressions of adipokines secreted by EAT and hypoxic 3T3-L1 adipocytes were detected. The changes in collagen synthesis, transforming growth factor-β1 expression, and cell differentiation and proliferation in cardiac fibroblasts induced by hypoxic 3T3-L1 adipocyte-derived conditioned medium were further analyzed. Chronic OSA induced infiltration of EAT into the left atrium. OSA enhanced the profibrotic effect of EAT on the adjacent atrial myocardium. Moreover, OSA induced profibrotic cytokine secretion from EAT . We also found that hypoxia induced adipokine secretion in cultured adipocytes, and the medium conditioned by the hypoxic adipocytes increased collagen and transforming growth factor-β1 protein expression and cell proliferation of cardiac fibroblasts. More importantly, metoprolol attenuated infiltration of EAT and alleviated the profibrotic effect of EAT by inhibiting adipokine secretion. Metoprolol also inhibited hypoxia-induced adipokine secretion in adipocytes and thereby blocked the hypoxic adipocyte-derived conditioned medium-induced fibrotic response of cardiac fibroblasts. Conclusions Chronic OSA enhanced the profibrotic effect of EAT on the neighboring atrial myocardium by stimulating the secretion of profibrotic adipokines from EAT , which was significantly attenuated by metoprolol. This study gives insights into mechanisms underlying OSA -induced atrial fibrillation and also provides experimental evidence for the protective effects of metoprolol.

Bilobalide protects H9c2 cell from oxygen-glucose-deprivation-caused damage through upregulation of miR-27a

Background: Myocardial ischemia is a troublesome disease. Bilobalide possesses multiple biological functions. We researched the consequents of bilobalide in OGD-irritated H9c2 cells. Methods: OGD-stimulated H9c2 cells were treated by bilobalide, and/or transfected with miR-27a inhibitor or negative control. Use CCK-8 and flow cytometry to test cell activity and apoptosis, respectively. Luciferase activity experiment was to test targeting link between miR-27a and Tmub1. Levels of cell-cycle and apoptosis relative proteins and phosphorylation of PI3K/AKT and Wnt/β-catenin related proteins were detected through western blot. Results: OGD stimulation reduced cell activity and negatively regulated the expression of CDK4, CDK6 and CyclinD1. Cell apoptosis was increased and its related proteins were affected by OGD. Bilobalide administration reversed all the results above caused by OGD. OGD negatively regulated miR-27a while bilobalide upregulated miR-27a. miR-27a's target gene was Tmub1. The protection consequents of bilobalide were suppressed when cells were transfected with a miR-27a inhibitor that cell activity was reduced and apoptosis was raised. Attenuation in the phosphorylation level of PI3K, AKT and β-catenin by OGD was reversed by bilobalide, whereas there were opposite results after transfected with miR-27a inhibitor. Conclusion: Bilobalide relieved OGD-caused H9c2 cell damage, raising cell activity and attenuating apoptosis via upregulating miR-27a and activating of PI3K/AKT and Wnt/β-catenin signal pathway. Highlights Bilobalide alleviates OGD-induced H9c2 cell injury. Bilobalide upregulates miR-27a expression in OGD-stimulated H9c2 cells. Bilobalide alleviates cell injury by upregulation of miR-27a. Bilobalide actuates PI3K/AKT and Wnt/β-catenin pathways.

Ginkgo Flavonol Glycosides or Ginkgolides Tend to Differentially Protect Myocardial or Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury via Regulation of TWEAK-Fn14 Signaling in Heart and Brain

Shuxuening injection (SXNI), one of the pharmaceutical preparations of Ginkgo biloba extract, has significant effects on both ischemic stroke and heart diseases from bench to bedside. Its major active ingredients are ginkgo flavonol glycosides (GFGs) and ginkgolides (GGs). We have previously reported that SXNI as a whole protected ischemic brain and heart, but the active ingredients and their contribution to the therapeutic effects remain unclear. Therefore, we combined experimental and network analysis approach to further explore the specific effects and underlying mechanisms of GFGs and GGs of SXNI on ischemia–reperfusion injury in mouse brain and heart. In the myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury (MIRI) model, pretreatment with GFGs at 2.5 ml/kg was superior to the same dose of GGs in improving cardiac function and coronary blood flow and reducing the levels of lactate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase in serum, with an effect similar to that achieved by SXNI. In contrast, pretreatment with GGs at 2.5 ml/kg reduced cerebral infarction area and cerebral edema similarly to that of SXNI but more significantly compared with GFGs in cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury (CIRI) model. Network pharmacology analysis of GFGs and GGs revealed that tumor necrosis factor-related weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK)–fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14) signaling pathway as an important common mechanism but with differential targets in MIRI and CIRI. In addition, immunohistochemistry and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays were performed to evaluate the regulatory roles of GFGs and GGs on the common TWEAK–Fn14 signaling pathway to protect the heart and brain. Experimental results confirmed that TWEAK ligand and Fn14 receptor were downregulated by GFGs to mitigate MIRI in the heart while upregulated by GGs to improve CIRI in the brain. In conclusion, our study showed that GFGs and GGs of SXNI tend to differentially protect brain and heart from ischemia–reperfusion injuries at least in part by regulating a common TWEAK–Fn14 signaling pathway.

Ginkgo biloba Extract Modulates the Retroperitoneal Fat Depot Proteome and Reduces Oxidative Stress in Diet-Induced Obese Rats

The rapid increase in the number of individuals with obesity, over the past four decades, is triggered by a number of complex interactions among factors. Despite the plethora of treatments available, side effects are commonly observed and, in this context, herbal medicines have been employed as an alternative form of therapy. Ginkgo biloba extract (GbE) has been described as a promising new pharmacological approach to treat obesity. In order to better comprehend the mechanisms involved with this potential effect, the present study evaluated the effects of GbE treatment on diet-induced obese rats, focusing on the proteome and the oxidative stress defense system of visceral adipose tissue. After 14 days treatment, GbE significantly modulated 25 proteins. Retroperitoneal adipose tissue of treated animals exhibited higher amounts of proteins associated with adipogenesis (decorin), carbon metabolism and mitochondrial function (citrate synthase), and a concomitant reduction in adipocyte hypertrophy. In parallel, GbE down-regulated proteins involved in oxidative stress (peroxiredoxin) and the inflammatory response (complement C3, mast cell protease 1, and Ig gamma-2B chain C region). Moreover, also related to oxidative stress defense, GbE stimulated catalase activity, reduced malondialdehyde levels (lipid peroxidation indicator), and increased lactoylglutathione lyase levels. It was concluded that GbE acts as an antioxidant agent, and improved the proteome profile and oxidative stress response in the adipose tissue of diet-induced obese rats.

Human pharmacokinetics of ginkgo terpene lactones and impact of carboxylation in blood on their platelet-activating factor antagonistic activity

Terpene lactones are a class of bioactive constituents of standardized preparations of Ginkgo biloba leaf extract, extensively used as add-on therapies in patients with ischemic cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. This investigation evaluated human pharmacokinetics of ginkgo terpene lactones and impact of their carboxylation in blood. Human subjects received oral YinXing-TongZhi tablet or intravenous ShuXueNing, two standardized ginkgo preparations. Their plasma protein-binding and platelet-activating factor antagonistic activity were assessed in vitro. Their carboxylation was assessed in phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4) and in human plasma. After dosing YinXing-TongZhi tablet, ginkgolides A and B and bilobalide exhibited significantly higher systemic exposure levels than ginkgolides C and J; after dosing ShuXueNing, ginkgolides A, B, C, and J exhibited high exposure levels. The compounds' unbound fractions in plasma were 45-92%. Apparent oral bioavailability of ginkgolides A and B was mostly >100%, while that of ginkgolides C and J was 6-15%. Bilobalide's bioavailability was probably high but lower than that of ginkgolides A/B. Terminal half-lives of ginkgolides A, B, and C (4-7 h) after dosing ShuXueNing were shorter than their respective values (6-13 h) after dosing YinXing-TongZhi tablet. Half-life of bilobalide after dosing the tablet was around 5 h. Terpene lactones were roughly evenly distributed in various body fluids and tissues; glomerular-filtration-based renal excretion was the predominant elimination route for the ginkgolides and a major route for bilobalide. Terpene lactones circulated as trilactones and monocarboxylates. Carboxylation reduced platelet-activating factor antagonistic activity of ginkgolides A, B, and C. Ginkgolide J, bilobalide, and ginkgo flavonoids exhibited no such bioactivity. Collectively, differences in terpene lactones' exposure between the two preparations and influence of their carboxylation in blood should be considered in investigating the relative contributions of terpene lactones to ginkgo preparations' therapeutic effects. The results here will inform rational clinical use of ginkgo preparations.

Enhancing amplification of late-outgrowth endothelial cells by bilobalide

Transfusion of autologous late-outgrowth endothelial cells (OECs) is a promising treatment for restenosis after revascularization. Preparing cells by in vitro amplification is a key step to implement the therapy. This study aimed to demonstrate that bilobalide, a terpenoid, enhances the OEC amplification. Human-, rabbit- and rat OECs and a mouse femoral artery injury model were used. Expanding OECs used endothelial growth medium-2 as the standard culture medium while exploring the mechanisms used endothelial basal medium-2. Proliferation assay used MTT method and BrdU method. Migration assay used the modified Boyden chamber. Intracellular nitric oxide, superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical/peroxynitrite and H₂ O₂ were quantified with DAF-FM DA, dihydroethidium, hydroxyphenyl fluorescein and a H₂ O₂ assay kit, respectively. Activated ERK1/2 and eNOS were tested with the Western blot. Bilobalide concentration-dependently enhanced OEC number increase in vitro. Transfusion of bilobalide-based human OECs into femoral injured athymia nude mouse reduced the intimal hyperplasia. Bilobalide promoted OEC proliferation and migration and increased the intracellular nitric oxide level. L-NAME, a NOS inhibitor, inhibits but not abolishes OEC proliferation, migration and ERK1/2 activation. Bilobalide concentration-dependently enhanced the eNOS Ser-1177 phosphorylation and Thr-495 dephosphorylation in activated OECs. Bilobalide alleviates the increase in hydroxyl radical/peroxynitrite, superoxide anion and H₂ O₂ in proliferating OECs. In conclusion, nitric oxide plays a partial role in OEC proliferation and migration; bilobalide increases OEC nitric oxide production and decreases nitric oxide depletion, promoting the OEC number increase; Bilobalide-based OECs are active in vivo. The findings may simplify the preparation of OECs, facilitating the implementation of the autologous-OECs-transfusion therapy.

Alantolactone improves palmitate-induced glucose intolerance and inflammation in both lean and obese states in vitro: Adipocyte and adipocyte-macrophage co-culture system

Obesity is characterized by a massive infiltration of the adipose tissue by macrophages. Adipocytes, together with macrophages create a crosstalk between inflammation and insulin resistance. Excess saturated FFA, such as palmitate, absorbed via the portal system may cause glucose intolerance and inflammation, which leads to insulin resistance. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the potency of alantolactone (AL), a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Inula helenium in reducing palmitate-induced glucose intolerance, fat accumulation, and inflammation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and adipocyte-macrophage co-culture system (3T3-L1-RAW264.7). We observed that palmitate reduced glucose uptake and increased fat accumulation, which indicated dysfunctional adipocytes with inadequate lipid storage. However, AL treatment reversed these changes in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.05). Palmitate activated c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) and IκB kinase β/α (IKKβ/α) phosphorylation, and increased the levels of the proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 [IL-6]) and chemokines (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 [MCP-1]). AL treatment selectively reduced JNK-associated mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway (JNK and extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation). However, it did not affect NF-κB pathway in adipocytes. In addition, AL decreased the gene expression of JNK upregulating factor, toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4), suggesting inhibition of TLR4-JNK signaling. Moreover, it reduced inflammation-associated IL-6 and MCP-1 mRNA levels in both adipocytes and adipocyte-macrophage system. Our study showed that palmitate treatment led to adipocyte dysfunction and macrophage infiltration; however, AL improved palmitate-induced glucose intolerance and inflammation. These findings suggest that AL may inhibit obesity-induced insulin resistance and improve glucose homeostasis and inflammation in insulin target tissues.

Targeting the NO/superoxide ratio in adipose tissue: relevance to obesity and diabetes management

Insulin sensitivity and metabolic homeostasis depend on the capacity of adipose tissue to take up and utilize excess glucose and fatty acids. The key aspects that determine the fuel-buffering capacity of adipose tissue depend on the physiological levels of the small redox molecule, nitric oxide (NO). In addition to impairment of NO synthesis, excessive formation of the superoxide anion (О2•- ) in adipose tissue may be an important interfering factor diverting the signalling of NO and other reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in obesity, resulting in metabolic dysfunction of adipose tissue over time. Besides its role in relief from superoxide burst, enhanced NO signalling may be responsible for the therapeutic benefits of different superoxide dismutase mimetics, in obesity and experimental diabetes models. This review summarizes the role of NO in adipose tissue and highlights the effects of NO/О2•- ratio 'teetering' as a promising pharmacological target in the metabolic syndrome.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Redox Biology and Oxidative Stress in Health and Disease. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.12/issuetoc.

The mitochondrial permeability transition pore in AD 2016: An update

Over the past 30years the mitochondrial permeability transition - the permeabilization of the inner mitochondrial membrane due to the opening of a wide pore - has progressed from being considered a curious artifact induced in isolated mitochondria by Ca(2+) and phosphate to a key cell-death-inducing process in several major pathologies. Its relevance is by now universally acknowledged and a pharmacology targeting the phenomenon is being developed. The molecular nature of the pore remains to this day uncertain, but progress has recently been made with the identification of the FOF1 ATP synthase as the probable proteic substrate. Researchers sharing this conviction are however divided into two camps: these believing that only the ATP synthase dimers or oligomers can form the pore, presumably in the contact region between monomers, and those who consider that the ring-forming c subunits in the FO sector actually constitute the walls of the pore. The latest development is the emergence of a new candidate: Spastic Paraplegia 7 (SPG7), a mitochondrial AAA-type membrane protease which forms a 6-stave barrel. This review summarizes recent developments of research on the pathophysiological relevance and on the molecular nature of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mitochondrial Channels edited by Pierre Sonveaux, Pierre Maechler and Jean-Claude Martinou.

S. A, V. M. N, K. G. R. Bilobalide safeguards 3T3-L1 adipocytes from hypoxia through protecting mitochondrial bioenergetics, biogenesis and dynamics

Hypoxia leads to mitochondrial dysfunction by altering dynamics, biogenesis, and OXPHOS while bilobalide protects mitochondria from hypoxia in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Current Perspectives on the Beneficial Role of Ginkgo biloba in Neurological and Cerebrovascular Disorders

Ginkgo biloba extract is an alternative medicine available as a standardized formulation, EGb 761^®, which consists of ginkgolides, bilobalide, and flavonoids. The individual constituents have varying therapeutic mechanisms that contribute to the pharmacological activity of the extract as a whole. Recent studies show anxiolytic properties of ginkgolide A, migraine with aura treatment by ginkgolide B, a reduction in ischemia-induced glutamate excitotoxicity by bilobalide, and an alternative antihypertensive property of quercetin, among others. These findings have been observed in EGb 761 as well and have led to clinical investigation into its use as a therapeutic for conditions such as cognition, dementia, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular diseases. This review explores the therapeutic mechanisms of the individual EGb 761 constituents to explain the pharmacology as a whole and its clinical application to cardiovascular and neurological disorders, in particular ischemic stroke.

Redox implications in adipose tissue (dys)function--A new look at old acquaintances

Obesity is an energy balance disorder associated with dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and diabetes type 2, also summarized with the term metabolic syndrome or syndrome X. Increasing evidence points to “adipocyte dysfunction”, rather than fat mass accretion per se, as the key pathophysiological factor for metabolic complications in obesity. The dysfunctional fat tissue in obesity characterizes a failure to safely store metabolic substrates into existing hypertrophied adipocytes and/or into new preadipocytes recruited for differentiation. In this review we briefly summarize the potential of redox imbalance in fat tissue as an instigator of adipocyte dysfunction in obesity. We reveal the challenge of the adipose redox changes, insights in the regulation of healthy expansion of adipose tissue and its reduction, leading to glucose and lipids overflow.

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Adipose tissue (AT) buffers nutrient excess determining overall metabolic health.

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Redox insight in lipid storage and adipogenesis of AT is reviewed.

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Redox modulation of AT as therapeutic target in obesity/syndrome X is considered.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced mastitis in rats via suppressing MAPK mediated inflammatory responses and oxidative stress

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) is an extremely popular beverage worldwide. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is one of the major catechins isolated from green tea and contributes to its beneficial therapeutic functions including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects. However, the effect of EGCG on mastitis is not yet known. This study was to investigate the protective potential of EGCG against mastitis in rats. The rat mastitis model was induced by injecting lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into the duct of mammary gland. The mammary gland was collected after the experimental period. The levels of mammary oxidative stress and inflammatory responses were assessed by measuring the local activities of antioxidant enzymes and the levels of inflammatory cytokines. The mammary expressions of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nuclear factor κB-p65 (NFκB-p65) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) were evaluated by western blot analysis. It was found that EGCG obviously normalized LPS-induced low activities of antioxidant enzymes as well as decreased the high levels of inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, EGCG inhibited the mammary over-expression of MAPKs, NFκB-p65 and HIF-1α. These results indicated that EGCG was able to attenuate LPS-induced mastitis in rats by suppressing MAPK related oxidative stress and inflammatory responses.

Oxidative stress and adipocyte biology: focus on the role of AGEs

Diabetes is a major health problem that is usually associated with obesity, together with hyperglycemia and increased advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) formation. Elevated AGEs elicit severe downstream consequences via their binding to receptors of AGEs (RAGE). This includes oxidative stress and oxidative modifications of biological compounds together with heightened inflammation. For example, albumin (major circulating protein) undergoes increased glycoxidation with diabetes and may represent an important biomarker for monitoring diabetic pathophysiology. Despite the central role of adipose tissue in many physiologic/pathologic processes, recognition of the effects of greater AGEs formation in this tissue is quite recent within the obesity/diabetes context. This review provides a brief background of AGEs formation and adipose tissue biology and thereafter discusses the impact of AGEs-adipocyte interactions in pathology progression. Novel data are included showing how AGEs (especially glycated albumin) may be involved in hyperglycemia-induced oxidative damage in adipocytes and its potential links to diabetes progression.